1
|
Hoogeveen RC, Boonstra A. Checkpoint Inhibitors and Therapeutic Vaccines for the Treatment of Chronic HBV Infection. Front Immunol 2020; 11:401. [PMID: 32194573 PMCID: PMC7064714 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is highly effective in suppressing viral replication, but complete cure is rarely achieved. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in the development of immunotherapy to treat cancer. Applying these therapies to improve the management of chronic HBV infection is now being attempted, and has become an area of active research. Immunotherapy with vaccines and checkpoint inhibitors can boost T cell functions in vitro, and therefore may be used to reinvigorate the impaired HBV-specific T cell response. However, whether these approaches will suffice and restore antiviral T cell immunity to induce long-term HBV control remains an open question. Recent efforts have begun to describe the phenotype and function of HBV-specific T cells on the single epitope level. An improved understanding of differing T cell specificities and their contribution to HBV control will be instrumental for advancement of the field. In this review, we outline correlates of successful versus inadequate T cell responses to HBV, and discuss the rationale behind therapeutic vaccines and checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of chronic HBV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruben C Hoogeveen
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - André Boonstra
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
CD8 +CD28 - T cells: key cytotoxic players impacting disease pathogenesis in chronic HBV infection. Clin Sci (Lond) 2019; 133:1917-1934. [PMID: 31477625 DOI: 10.1042/cs20190369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
During chronic hepatitis B (CHB), CD8+ T cells down-regulate CD28, the primary co-stimulation molecule for T-cell activation. Diverse functional attributes of CD8+CD28- T cells are suggested in various disease contexts. The present study aimed to characterize CD8+CD28- T cells in different phases of chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (CHI)- Immune-tolerance (IT), Hepatitis B e-antigen-positive CHB (EP-CHB), Inactive carriers (IC) and Hepatitis B e-antigen-negative CHB (EN-CHB), to appraise their contribution in HBV-related disease pathophysiology. Flow cytometry analysis of T cells in peripheral blood of study subjects revealed enhanced CD8+CD28- T-cell accumulation in EP-/EN-CHB, compared with IT/IC and they expanded equivalently in HBV-specific and non-specific CD8+ T-cell compartments. Profound increase in CD8+CD28- T cells expressing perforin/granzyme-B/CD57/IFN-γ/TNF-α and markers of terminal differentiation were observed exclusively in EP-/EN-CHB. Further, activation with anti-NKG2D resulted in heightened IFN-γ/TNF-α production selectively from CD8+CD28- T cells, suggesting NKG2D-mediated alternative co-stimulation. CD8+CD28- T cells sorted from CHB patients induced enhanced apoptosis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), including CD4+ T cells. However, NKG2D-ligand (major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related molecule A/B (MICA/B)) was preferentially expressed by HBV-specific CD4+ T cells of CHB patients, making these cells a potential target to NKG2D-dependent CD8+CD28- T-cell killing. Both CD28+ and CD28- T cells in CHB expressed CXCR3 at similar levels and thus capable of homing to the liver. A positive correlation was seen between CD8+CD28- T-cell frequency and serum-alanine transaminase (ALT) levels and CHB-derived CD8+CD28- T cells caused pronounced cell death in HBV-transfected Huh7 cells. Immunofluorescence staining identified greater intrahepatic incidence of CD8+CD28- T cells but decline in CD4+ T cells in CHB than IC. Collectively, CD8+CD28- T cells demonstrated differential distribution and phenotypic/functional skewing in different CHI phases and contribute to disease progression by Perforin-Granzyme- or IFN-γ-TNF-α-mediated cytotoxicity while restraining antiviral immunity through NKG2D-dependent HBV-specific CD4+ T-cell depletion.
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhu W, Liu H, Zhang X. Toward Curative Immunomodulation Strategies for Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:703-712. [PMID: 30907080 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. HBV surface antigen loss is considered a functional cure and is an ideal goal for antiviral therapy. However, current treatment regimens, including nucleos(t)ide analogues or interferons monotherapy and combination therapy, rarely achieve this goal in chronic hepatitis B patients. Nucleos(t)ide analogues (NAs), as well as many direct antiviral drugs in ongoing development, are able to inhibit HBV replication and gene expression, but it is hard to achieve immune control and prevent recurrence after therapy cessation. Host immunity, especially HBV-specific T cell response, is proven to play a critical role in control or clearance of HBV infection. Considering HBV chronically infected patients display varying degrees of dysfunction regarding their immune system, novel approaches to enhancing antiviral immune responses are necessary in order to combine with current antiviral agents. In this Review, we focus on the role of innate and adaptive immune responses in HBV immunopathogenesis and discuss attractive strategies or drugs that aim to activate or rebuild antiviral immunity to achieve the goal of an HBV functional cure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, No. 1838, North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Hongyan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, No. 1838, North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Xiaoyong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, No. 1838, North Guangzhou Avenue, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bhat P, Bergot AS, Waterhouse N, Frazer IH. Human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein expression by keratinocytes alters the cytotoxic mechanisms used by CD8 T cells. Oncotarget 2018; 9:6015-6027. [PMID: 29464051 PMCID: PMC5814191 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is a malignant transformation of keratinocytes initiated by the E7 oncoprotein of human papillomavirus (HPV). These tumors are characterized by keratinocyte hyperproliferation and are often infiltrated with activated CD8 T cells. HPV infection confers changes to gain immunological advantage to promote chronic infection, and these persist with malignant transformation. We investigated the relative importance of the many redundant mechanisms of cytotoxicity used by CD8 T cells to kill keratinocytes expressing HPV E7 oncoprotein using extended-duration time-lapse microscopy that allows examination of cell-to-cell interactions during killing. E7 expression by keratinocytes increased susceptibility to cell-mediated killing. However, while killing of non-transgenic keratinocytes was traditional, perforin-mediated, and caspase-dependent, E7-expression favored killing by perforin-independent, caspase-independent mechanisms. The roles of perforin, TNFα, IFNγ, Fas/FasL and PD1/PD-L1 were graded according to target cell survival to produce a hierarchy of killing mechanisms utilized in killing E7-expressing cells. TNFα was essential for perforin-mediated killing of E7-expressing cells, but not perforin-independent killing. IFNγ facilitated killing by Fas/FasL interaction, especially in the absence of perforin. Additionally, expression of E7 offered protection from killing by up regulation of PD-L1, Fas and FasL expression on keratinocytes promoting fight-back by target cells, resulting in effector cell death. This study shows that keratinocytes expressing E7 are highly susceptible to killing by CD8 T cells, but utilizing different armamentarium. Down-regulation of CD8 T cell cytotoxicity in HPV-related tumors may be due to suppression by E7-expressing keratinocytes. Immunotherapy for HPV-related cancers may be improved by suppression of PD-L1, or by suppression of FasL.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Purnima Bhat
- University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.,Medical School, Australian National University, Canberra, Act, Australia
| | - Anne-Sophie Bergot
- University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Nigel Waterhouse
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Ian Hector Frazer
- University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Stelma F, Willemse SB, Erken R, de Niet A, Sinnige MJ, van Dort K, Zaaijer HL, van Leeuwen EMM, Kootstra NA, Reesink HW. Dynamics of the Immune Response in Acute Hepatitis B Infection. Open Forum Infect Dis 2017; 4:ofx231. [PMID: 29302605 PMCID: PMC5739046 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofx231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute hepatitis B virus infection in adults is generally self-limiting but may lead to chronicity in a minority of patients. Methods We included 9 patients with acute hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and collected longitudinal follow-up samples. Natural killer (NK) cell characteristics were analyzed by flowcytometry. HBV-specific T-cell function was analyzed by in vitro stimulation with HBV peptide pools and intracellular cytokine staining. Results Median baseline HBV DNA load was 5.12 log IU/mL, and median ALT was 2652 U/mL. Of 9 patients, 8 cleared HBsAg within 6 months whereas 1 patient became chronically infected. Early time points after infection showed increased CD56bright NK cells and an increased proportion of cells expressing activation markers. Most of these had normalized at week 24, while the proportion of TRAIL-positive CD56bright NK cells remained high in the chronically infected patient. In patients who cleared HBV, functional HBV-specific CD8+ and CD4+ responses could be observed, whereas in the patient who developed chronic infection, only low HBV-specific T-cell responses were observed. Conclusions NK cells are activated early in the course of acute HBV infection. Broad and multispecific T-cell responses are observed in patients who clear acute HBV infection, but not in a patient who became chronically infected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Femke Stelma
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sophie B Willemse
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Robin Erken
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Annikki de Niet
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marjan J Sinnige
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Karel van Dort
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hans L Zaaijer
- Department of Clinical Virology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ester M M van Leeuwen
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Neeltje A Kootstra
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hendrik W Reesink
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ortega-Prieto AM, Dorner M. Immune Evasion Strategies during Chronic Hepatitis B and C Virus Infection. Vaccines (Basel) 2017; 5:E24. [PMID: 28862649 PMCID: PMC5620555 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines5030024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections are a major global healthcare problem with more than 240 million and 70 million infected, respectively. Both viruses persist within the liver and result in progressive liver disease, resulting in liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Strikingly, this pathogenesis is largely driven by immune responses, unable to clear an established infection, rather than by the viral pathogens themselves. Even though disease progression is very similar in both infections, HBV and HCV have evolved distinct mechanisms, by which they ensure persistence within the host. Whereas HCV utilizes a cloak-and-dagger approach, disguising itself as a lipid-like particle and immediately crippling essential pattern-recognition pathways, HBV has long been considered a "stealth" virus, due to the complete absence of innate immune responses during infection. Recent developments and access to improved model systems, however, revealed that even though it is among the smallest human-tropic viruses, HBV may, in addition to evading host responses, employ subtle immune evasion mechanisms directed at ensuring viral persistence in the absence of host responses. In this review, we compare the different strategies of both viruses to ensure viral persistence by actively interfering with viral recognition and innate immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcus Dorner
- Section of Virology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Boeijen LL, Hoogeveen RC, Boonstra A, Lauer GM. Hepatitis B virus infection and the immune response: The big questions. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2017; 31:265-272. [PMID: 28774408 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpg.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Clinical events and the host immune response during hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection are intricately linked. Despite decades of research, important questions concerning the immunopathogenesis of chronic HBV infection remain unanswered. For example, it is unclear which immune parameters facilitate persistence, and if HBV can be completely cleared from the human liver. Recent technological breakthroughs now allow researchers to address these seemingly basic, but essential questions surrounding HBV immunity. It will be important to better define the molecular underpinnings of immune cell function and dysfunction during chronic disease and in controlled infection, with particular focus on the liver, as little information is available on the intrahepatic compartment. In the near future, it may be possible to solve some of the controversy surrounding the immune responses to HBV, and establish the features of both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system required to achieve sustained control of HBV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauke L Boeijen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ruben C Hoogeveen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Division of Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Andre Boonstra
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Georg M Lauer
- Division of Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ghosh S, Nandi M, Pal S, Mukhopadhyay D, Chakraborty BC, Khatun M, Bhowmick D, Mondal RK, Das S, Das K, Ghosh R, Banerjee S, Santra A, Chatterjee M, Chowdhury A, Datta S. Natural killer cells contribute to hepatic injury and help in viral persistence during progression of hepatitis B e-antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22:733.e9-733.e19. [PMID: 27208430 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B e-antigen negative (e(-)) chronic HBV infection (CHI) encompasses a heterogeneous clinical spectrum ranging from inactive carrier (IC) state to e(-) chronic hepatitis B (CHB), cirrhosis and hepatic decompensation. In the backdrop of dysfunctional virus-specific T cells, natural killer (NK) cells are emerging as innate effectors in CHI. We characterized CD3(-) CD56(+) NK cells in clinically well-defined, treatment-naive e(-) patients in IC, e(-)CHB or decompensated liver cirrhosis (LC) phase to appraise their role in disease progression. The NK cell frequencies increased progressively with disease severity (IC 8.2%, e(-)CHB 13.2% and LC 14.4%). Higher proportion of NK cells from LC/e(-)CHB expressed CD69, NKp46, NKp44, TRAIL and perforin, the last two being prominent features of CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) NK subsets, respectively. The frequencies of CD3(-) CD56(+) NK cells together with TRAIL(+) CD56(bright) and Perforin(+) CD56(dim) NK cells correlated positively with serum alanine transaminase levels in e(-)CHB/LC. K562 cell-stimulated NK cells from e(-)CHB/LC exhibited significantly greater degranulation but diminished interferon-γ production than IC. Further, Perforin(+) NK cell frequency inversely correlated with autologous CD4(+) T-cell count in e(-) patients and ligands of NK receptors were over-expressed in CD4(+) T cells from e(-)CHB/LC relative to IC. Co-culture of sorted CD56(dim) NK cells and CD4(+) T cells from e(-)CHB showed enhanced CD4(+) T-cell apoptosis, which was reduced by perforin inhibitor, concanamycin A, suggesting a possible perforin-dependent NK cell-mediated CD4(+) T-cell depletion. Moreover, greater incidence of perforin-expressing NK cells and decline in CD4(+) T cells were noticed intrahepatically in e(-)CHB than IC. Collectively, NK cells contribute to the progression of e(-)CHI by enhanced TRAIL- and perforin-dependent cytolytic activity and by restraining anti-viral immunity through reduced interferon-γ secretion and perforin-mediated CD4(+) T-cell lysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Ghosh
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - M Nandi
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - S Pal
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - D Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - B C Chakraborty
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - M Khatun
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - D Bhowmick
- CU-BD Centre of Excellence for Nanobiotechnology, Centre for Research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, University of Calcutta, India
| | - R K Mondal
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - S Das
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - K Das
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - R Ghosh
- Division of Gastrointestinal and Liver Pathology, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - S Banerjee
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - A Santra
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - M Chatterjee
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - A Chowdhury
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - S Datta
- Department of Hepatology and Centre for Liver Research, School of Digestive & Liver Diseases, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Kolkata, India.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Frevert U, Krzych U. Plasmodium cellular effector mechanisms and the hepatic microenvironment. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:482. [PMID: 26074888 PMCID: PMC4445044 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria remains one of the most serious health problems globally. Immunization with attenuated parasites elicits multiple cellular effector mechanisms capable of eliminating Plasmodium liver stages. However, malaria liver stage (LS) immunity is complex and the mechanisms effector T cells use to locate the few infected hepatocytes in the large liver in order to kill the intracellular LS parasites remain a mystery to date. Here, we review our current knowledge on the behavior of CD8 effector T cells in the hepatic microvasculature, in malaria and other hepatic infections. Taking into account the unique immunological and lymphogenic properties of the liver, we discuss whether classical granule-mediated cytotoxicity might eliminate infected hepatocytes via direct cell contact or whether cytokines might operate without cell–cell contact and kill Plasmodium LSs at a distance. A thorough understanding of the cellular effector mechanisms that lead to parasite death hence sterile protection is a prerequisite for the development of a successful malaria vaccine to protect the 40% of the world’s population currently at risk of Plasmodium infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ute Frevert
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine , New York, NY, USA
| | - Urszula Krzych
- Division of Malaria Vaccine Development, Department of Cellular Immunology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Luedde T, Kaplowitz N, Schwabe RF. Cell death and cell death responses in liver disease: mechanisms and clinical relevance. Gastroenterology 2014; 147:765-783.e4. [PMID: 25046161 PMCID: PMC4531834 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 532] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular death is present in almost all types of human liver disease and is used as a sensitive parameter for the detection of acute and chronic liver disease of viral, toxic, metabolic, or autoimmune origin. Clinical data and animal models suggest that hepatocyte death is the key trigger of liver disease progression, manifested by the subsequent development of inflammation, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Modes of hepatocellular death differ substantially between liver diseases. Different modes of cell death such as apoptosis, necrosis, and necroptosis trigger specific cell death responses and promote progression of liver disease through distinct mechanisms. In this review, we first discuss molecular mechanisms by which different modes of cell death, damage-associated molecular patterns, and specific cell death responses contribute to the development of liver disease. We then review the clinical relevance of cell death, focusing on biomarkers; the contribution of cell death to drug-induced, viral, and fatty liver disease and liver cancer; and evidence for cell death pathways as therapeutic targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Luedde
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Neil Kaplowitz
- Division of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases, Keck
School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089,
USA
| | - Robert F. Schwabe
- Department of Medicine; Institute of Human Nutrition,
Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA,To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dr.
Tom Luedde, M.D., Ph.D. Department of Medicine III, Division of GI-
and Hepatobiliary Oncology University Hospital RWTH Aachen.
Pauwelsstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen; Germany or
Dr. Robert F. Schwabe Columbia University Department of Medicine; Institute of
Human Nutrition Russ Berrie Pavilion, Room 415 1150 St. Nicholas Ave New York,
NY 10032; USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Maini MK, Peppa D. NK cells: a double-edged sword in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Front Immunol 2013; 4:57. [PMID: 23459859 PMCID: PMC3585438 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is natural enrichment of NK cells in the human liver and this intrahepatic predominance underscores their potential importance in the control of infections with hepatotropic viruses such as hepatitis B virus (HBV). The contribution of innate components during chronic HBV infection has been a relatively under-investigated area. However, recent data have highlighted that NK cells are capable of exerting antiviral and immunoregulatory functions whilst also contributing to the pathogenesis of liver injury via death receptor pathways. We will present an overview of current knowledge regarding the complex biology of NK cells in the context of their antiviral versus pathogenic role in chronic hepatitis B as a clinically relevant avenue for further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mala K Maini
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Willimsky G, Schmidt K, Loddenkemper C, Gellermann J, Blankenstein T. Virus-induced hepatocellular carcinomas cause antigen-specific local tolerance. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:1032-43. [PMID: 23454765 DOI: 10.1172/jci64742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
T cell surveillance is often effective against virus-associated tumors because of their high immunogenicity. It is not clear why surveillance occasionally fails, particularly against hepatitis B virus- or hepatitis C virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We established a transgenic murine model of virus-induced HCC by hepatocyte-specific adenovirus-induced activation of the oncogenic SV40 large T antigen (TAg). Adenovirus infection induced cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) targeted against the virus and TAg, leading to clearance of the infected cells. Despite the presence of functional, antigen-specific T cells, a few virus-infected cells escaped immune clearance and progressed to HCC. These cells expressed TAg at levels similar to HCC isolated from neonatal TAg-tolerant mice, suggesting that CTL clearance does not select for cells with low immunogenicity. Virus-infected mice revealed significantly greater T cell infiltration in early-stage HCC compared with that in late-stage HCC, demonstrating progressive local immune suppression through inefficient T cell infiltration. Programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and its ligand PD-L1 were expressed in all TAg-specific CD8+ T cells and HCC, respectively, which contributed to local tumor-antigen-specific tolerance. Thus, we have developed a model of virus-induced HCC that may allow for a better understanding of human HCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Willimsky
- Institute of Immunology, Charité Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hu Z, Qin J, Zhang H, Wang D, Hua Y, Ding J, Shan L, Jin H, Zhang J, Zhang W. Japonicone A antagonizes the activity of TNF-α by directly targeting this cytokine and selectively disrupting its interaction with TNF receptor-1. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:1482-91. [PMID: 22981364 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Anti-TNF biologics are effective therapies for various inflammatory diseases. Unfortunately, their clinical use is associated with an increased risk of infections. Selectively inhibiting TNF receptor-1 (TNFR1)-mediated signaling while preserving TNFR2 signaling may reduce inflammation yet maintain host immune response to pathogens. However, few small molecules that selectively target the TNF/TNFR system have been discovered. In the present study, we identified Japonicone A (Jap A), a nature compound derived from Inula japonica Thunb, as a novel TNF-α antagonist, as it reduced the TNF-α-mediated cytotoxicity on L929 cells and inhibited the binding of (125)I-labeled TNF-α to L929 cell surface. Furthermore, Jap A could directly bind to TNF-α rather than TNFR1 as determined by surface plasmon resonance. More importantly, Jap A could effectively inhibit the binding of TNF-α to TNFR1, while displaying only marginal inhibitory effects on that to TNFR2. Jap A also could block TNFR1-mediated signaling as it inhibited TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation in 293 cells. In addition, Jap A suppressed TNF-α-induced expressions of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) and chemokine (MCP-1) in the endothelial cells by blocking TNF-α-triggered multiple signaling pathways. Data from in vivo experiments demonstrated that Jap A protected mice from acute hepatitis induced by TNF-α/d-galactosamine, but did not compromise host antiviral immunity in adenovirus-infected mice. These results indicate that Jap A can directly target TNF-α, selectively disrupt its interaction with TNFR1, and antagonize its pro-inflammatory activities without compromising host defense against virus, thus emphasizing the potential of Jap A as an interesting lead compound for development of new anti-inflammatory drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenlin Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Stromnes IM, Fowler C, Casamina CC, Georgopolos CM, McAfee MS, Schmitt TM, Tan X, Kim TD, Choi I, Blattman JN, Greenberg PD. Abrogation of SRC homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 in tumor-specific T cells improves efficacy of adoptive immunotherapy by enhancing the effector function and accumulation of short-lived effector T cells in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:1812-25. [PMID: 22798667 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
T cell expression of inhibitory proteins can be a critical component for the regulation of immunopathology owing to self-reactivity or potentially exuberant responses to pathogens, but it may also limit T cell responses to some malignancies, particularly if the tumor Ag being targeted is a self-protein. We found that the abrogation of Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase-1 (SHP-1) in tumor-reactive CD8(+) T cells improves the therapeutic outcome of adoptive immunotherapy in a mouse model of disseminated leukemia, with benefit observed in therapy employing transfer of CD8(+) T cells alone or in the context of also providing supplemental IL-2. SHP-1(-/-) and SHP-1(+/+) effector T cells were expanded in vitro for immunotherapy. Following transfer in vivo, the SHP-1(-/-) effector T cells exhibited enhanced short-term accumulation, followed by greater contraction, and they ultimately formed similar numbers of long-lived, functional memory cells. The increased therapeutic effectiveness of SHP-1(-/-) effector cells was also observed in recipients that expressed the tumor Ag as a self-antigen in the liver, without evidence of inducing autoimmune toxicity. SHP-1(-/-) effector CD8(+) T cells expressed higher levels of eomesodermin, which correlated with enhanced lysis of tumor cells. Furthermore, reduction of SHP-1 expression in tumor-reactive effector T cells by retroviral transduction with vectors that express SHP-1-specific small interfering RNA, a translatable strategy, also exhibited enhanced antitumor activity in vivo. These studies suggest that abrogating SHP-1 in effector T cells may improve the efficacy of tumor elimination by T cell therapy without affecting the ability of the effector cells to persist and provide a long-term response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn M Stromnes
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Sandalova E, Laccabue D, Boni C, Watanabe T, Tan A, Zong HZ, Ferrari C, Bertoletti A. Increased levels of arginase in patients with acute hepatitis B suppress antiviral T cells. Gastroenterology 2012; 143:78-87.e3. [PMID: 22475535 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2012.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2011] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS During viral infection, the activities of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells are carefully regulated to prevent severe damage of the infected organs. We investigated the mechanisms that control the functions of activated T cells. METHODS We measured the size of the population of activated and proliferating CD8(+) T cells and the functional pattern of CD8(+) T cells specific for the entire hepatitis B virus proteome and for selected heterologous virus (Epstein-Barr virus, human cytomegalovirus, and influenza virus) using blood samples from 18 patients with acute hepatitis B. We analyzed the effects of different modulatory mechanisms, such as inhibitory molecules, suppressive cytokines (interleukin-10), and arginase, on the activities of CD8(+) T cells. RESULTS In patients with acute hepatitis B, the expansion of activated and proliferating (HLA-DR/CD38(+), Ki-67(+)/Bcl-2(low)) CD8(+) T cells did not quantitatively match their specific functions ex vivo; virus-specific CD8(+) T cells had functional impairments that were temporally restricted to the acute phase of viral hepatitis. These impairments in function were not limited to HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells but were also observed in CD8(+) T cells with specificities for other viruses. We investigated possible causes of antigen-independent CD8(+) T cell inhibition and found that the increased levels of arginase observed in patients with acute hepatitis could suppress the function of activated, but not resting, CD8(+) T cells. CONCLUSIONS The increased level of arginase in patients with acute hepatitis B suppresses the functions of activated CD8(+) T cells. This mechanism might limit the amount of liver damage caused by activated CD8(+) T cells in patients with acute HBV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sandalova
- Infection & Immunity Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jo J, Bengsch B, Seigel B, Rau SJ, Schmidt J, Bisse E, Aichele P, Aichele U, Joeckel L, Royer C, Sá Ferreira K, Borner C, Baumert TF, Blum HE, Lohmann V, Fischer R, Thimme R. Low perforin expression of early differentiated HCV-specific CD8+ T cells limits their hepatotoxic potential. J Hepatol 2012; 57:9-16. [PMID: 22425625 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Perforin plays a central role in the immunopathogenesis of different viral infections. However, its role in hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has not been fully understood. Here, we analyzed two closely related questions: first, is CD8+ T cell-mediated killing of HCV-replicating human hepatoma cells mediated by perforin? Second, if so, do HCV-specific CD8+ T cells obtained from chronically HCV infected patients express and upregulate perforin? METHODS Susceptibility of HCV-replicating human hepatoma cells to the cytotoxic pathway was tested in vitro by addition of perforin substitute streptolysin O and granzyme B and by co-culture experiments with a perforin-expressing HCV-specific CD8+ T cell clone in the presence of perforin or caspase inhibitors. HCV-specific CD8+ T cells were obtained and analyzed for perforin expression and differentiation markers ex vivo from 12 chronically infected patients and 12 patients with resolved HCV infection. RESULTS HCV-replicating human hepatoma cells were susceptible to cytotoxic killing in vitro and a dominant role of perforin in HCV-specific CD8+ T cell-mediated cytolysis was observed. However, HCV-specific CD8+ T cells obtained ex vivo from chronically HCV infected patients expressed only low levels of perforin and showed an impaired ability to upregulate perforin. This was tightly linked to the distinct differentiation stage of HCV-specific CD8+ T cell differentiation ex vivo since early and intermediate differentiated HCV-specific CD8+ T cells only showed weak perforin expression in contrast to late differentiated CD8+ T cells that displayed strong perforin expression. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that perforin plays a dominant role in CD8+ T cell-mediated lysis of HCV-replicating human hepatoma cells but that lysis may be limited in human chronic viral infection by the low perforin expression of early/intermediate differentiated HCV-specific CD8+ T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juandy Jo
- Department of Medicine II, University Medical Center Freiburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
KIR and HLA loci are associated with hepatocellular carcinoma development in patients with hepatitis B virus infection: a case-control study. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25682. [PMID: 21998681 PMCID: PMC3187788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Natural killer (NK) cells activation has been reported to contribute to inflammation and liver injury during hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection both in transgenic mice and in patients. However, the role of NK cells in the process of HBV-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development has not been addressed. Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) are involved in regulating NK cell activation through recognition of specific human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I allotypes. Methodology/Principal Findings To investigate whether KIR and HLA genes could influence the risk of HBV-associated HCC development, 144 HBV-infected patients with HCC and 189 well-matched HBV infectors with chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis as non-HCC controls were enrolled in this study. The presence of 12 loci of KIR was detected individually. HLA-A, -B, -C loci were genotyped with high-resolution. HLA-C group 1 homozygote (OR = 2.02; p = 0.005), HLA-Bw4-80I (OR = 2.67; p = 2.0E-04) and combination of full-length form and 22 bp-deleted form of KIR2DS4 (KIR2DS4/1D) (OR = 1.89; p = 0.017) were found associated with HCC incidence. When the combined effects of these three genetic factors were evaluated, more risk factors were observed correlating with higher odds ratios for HCC incidence (P trend = 7.4E-05). Because all the risk factors we found have been reported to result in high NK cell functional potential by previous studies, our observations suggest that NK cell activation may contribute to HBV-associated HCC development. Conclusions/Significance In conclusion, this study has identified significant associations that suggest an important role for NK cells in HCC incidence in HBV-infected patients. Our study is useful for HCC surveillance and has implications for novel personalized therapy strategy development aiming at HCC prevention in HBV-infected patients.
Collapse
|
18
|
Saeed M, Shiina M, Date T, Akazawa D, Watanabe N, Murayama A, Suzuki T, Watanabe H, Hiraga N, Imamura M, Chayama K, Choi Y, Krawczynski K, Liang TJ, Wakita T, Kato T. In vivo adaptation of hepatitis C virus in chimpanzees for efficient virus production and evasion of apoptosis. Hepatology 2011; 54:425-33. [PMID: 21538444 PMCID: PMC3145027 DOI: 10.1002/hep.24399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Hepatitis C virus (HCV) employs various strategies to establish persistent infection that can cause chronic liver disease. Our previous study showed that both the original patient serum from which the HCV JFH-1 strain was isolated and the cell culture-generated JFH-1 virus (JFH-1cc) established infection in chimpanzees, and that infected JFH-1 strains accumulated mutations after passage through chimpanzees. The aim of this study was to compare the in vitro characteristics of JFH-1 strains emerged in each chimpanzee at early and late stages of infection, as it could provide an insight into the phenomenon of viral persistence. We generated full-genome JFH-1 constructs with the mutations detected in patient serum-infected (JFH-1/S1 and S2) and JFH-1cc-infected (JFH-1/C) chimpanzees, and assessed their effect on replication, infectious virus production, and regulation of apoptosis in cell culture. The extracellular HCV core antigen secreted from JFH-1/S1-, S2-, and C-transfected HuH-7 cells was 2.5, 8.9, and 2.1 times higher than that from JFH-1 wild-type (JFH-1/wt) transfected cells, respectively. Single cycle virus production assay with a CD81-negative cell line revealed that the strain JFH-1/S2, isolated from the patient serum-infected chimpanzee at a later time point of infection, showed lower replication and higher capacity to assemble infectious virus particles. This strain also showed productive infection in human hepatocyte-transplanted mice. Furthermore, the cells harboring this strain displayed lower susceptibility to the apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor α or Fas ligand compared with the cells replicating JFH-1/wt. CONCLUSION The ability of lower replication, higher virus production, and less susceptibility to cytokine-induced apoptosis may be important for prolonged infection in vivo. Such control of viral functions by specific mutations may be a key strategy for establishing persistent infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsan Saeed
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
- Department of Infection and Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Masaaki Shiina
- Division of Gastroenterology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
| | - Tomoko Date
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Daisuke Akazawa
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Watanabe
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Asako Murayama
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Suzuki
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Haruo Watanabe
- Department of Infection and Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Hiraga
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Division of Frontier Medical Science, Programs for Biomedical Research, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Michio Imamura
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Division of Frontier Medical Science, Programs for Biomedical Research, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Kazuaki Chayama
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Division of Frontier Medical Science, Programs for Biomedical Research, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Youkyung Choi
- Division of Viral Hepatitis, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Krzysztof Krawczynski
- Division of Viral Hepatitis, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - T. Jake Liang
- Liver Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Takaji Wakita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Takanobu Kato
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Tjwa ETTL, van Oord GW, Hegmans JP, Janssen HLA, Woltman AM. Viral load reduction improves activation and function of natural killer cells in patients with chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 2011; 54:209-18. [PMID: 21095036 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2010.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 06/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Natural killer (NK) cells play a major role in anti-viral immunity as first line defense and regulation of virus-specific T cell responses. This study aimed to investigate phenotype and function of NK cells in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and to study the effect of anti-viral therapy. METHODS Peripheral blood NK cells from 40 chronic HBV patients were compared to NK cells of 25 healthy controls. The effect of entecavir-induced viral load reduction on NK cell phenotype and function was investigated in 15 chronic HBV patients. RESULTS NK cell numbers and subset distribution did not differ between HBV patients and normal subjects. In chronic HBV patients, the cytotoxic capacity was retained, but NK cell activation and subsequent IFNγ and TNFα production, especially of the CD56(dim) subset, were strongly hampered. This functional dichotomy was paralleled by an altered activation state, elevated expression of NKG2A, and downregulated expression of CD16 and NKp30, which correlated with serum HBV-DNA load. Anti-viral therapy partially restored NK cell phenotype, as shown by NKG2A downregulation. Moreover, viral replication inhibition improved IFNγ production as a result of an increased ability of CD56(dim) NK cells to become activated de novo. This improved NK cell activation and function which correlated with therapy-induced reduction in serum ALT levels, but not HBV-DNA load. CONCLUSIONS The specific defect in CD56(dim) NK cell activation and the reduced capacity to produce anti-viral and Th1-skewing cytokines may play a role in HBV persistence. Restoration of this NK cell cytokine-producing capacity, as achieved by viral load reduction, could therefore contribute to definite clearance of the virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric T T L Tjwa
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Ali S, Starwalt R, Kreck J, Whittington B, Brown GR. Tumor necrosis factor is critical for cytolytic T cell activity against allospecific hepatocytes and splenic targets in major histocompatibility complex class I disparate graft versus host disease. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010; 31:423-31. [PMID: 21091241 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2010.0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present studies determined the role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)/tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) interactions on cytolytic (CTL) activity of splenic and intrahepatic lymphocytes (IHL) isolated from mice undergoing graft versus host disease, induced by transfer of B6 T cells to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I disparate bm1 × B6 F1 mice. Allospecific killing of anti-H-2(bm1) splenic and hepatocyte targets was assessed by 4-h (51)Cr release and 16-h DNA lysis assays, respectively, utilizing spleen cells (SpC) and IHL isolated (1) from sublethally irradiated bm1 × B6 F1 who had received B6 spleen and bone marrow cells, and a control adenovirus (Adv-βgal) or a TNF inhibitor expressing adenovirus (Adv-TNFi), or (2) from bm1 × B6 F1 recipients of B6, B6.129-Tnfrsf1a(tm1Mak)/J (TNFR1(-/-)), B6.129S2-Tnfrsf1b(tm1Mwm)/J (TNFR2(-/-)), or B6.129S-Tnfrsf1a(tm1Imx) Tnfrsf1b(tm1Imx)/J (TNFR(-/-)) SpC and bone marrow cells, or (3) from in vitro-activated SpC. Splenic and IHL from bone marrow transplant recipients who had received Adv-TNFi at the time of transplant displayed lower allospecific CTL activity than controls. Addition of TNFR-Ig or a TNF antibody before the CTL activity assay further reduced allospecific killing against bm1 SpC blast targets. Both TNF/TNFR1 and TNF/TNFR2 interactions were critical for the development of optimal CTL activity against allospecific hepatocyte targets. Further, TNFR1- and TNFR2-deficient SpC from MHC class I disparate mixed lymphocyte cultures displayed lower CTL activity and expression of effector molecules than control B6 SpC. TNF/TNFR interactions were critical for the development of optimal CTL activity of IHL and splenic cytotoxic T cells against MHC class I disparate SpC blast and hepatocyte targets in MHC class I disparate graft versus host disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Ali
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Getachew Y, James L, Lee WM, Thiele DL, Miller BC. Susceptibility to acetaminophen (APAP) toxicity unexpectedly is decreased during acute viral hepatitis in mice. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 79:1363-71. [PMID: 20036646 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity results from cytochrome P450 metabolism of APAP to the toxic metabolite, n-acetyl-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), which reacts with cysteinyl residues to form APAP adducts and initiates cell injury. As APAP is commonly used during viral illnesses there has been concern that APAP injury may be additive to that of viral hepatitis, leading physicians to advise against its use in such patients; this has not been investigated experimentally. We infected C57BL/6 male mice with replication-deficient adenovirus to produce moderately severe acute viral hepatitis and observed that APAP doses that were hepatotoxic or lethal in control mice produced neither death nor additional increase in serum ALT when administered to infected mice at the peak of virus-induced liver injury. Moreover, the concentration of hepatic APAP-protein adducts formed in these mice was only 10% that in control mice. Protection from APAP hepatotoxicity also was observed earlier in the course of infection, prior to the peak virus-induced ALT rise. Hepatic glutathione limits APAP-protein adduct formation but glutathione levels were similar in control and infected mice. Cyp1a2 (E.C. 1.14.14.1) and Cyp2e1 (E.C. 1.14.13.n7) mRNA expression decreased by 3 days post-infection and hepatic Cyp2e1 protein levels were reduced almost 90% at 7 days, when adduct formation was maximally inhibited. In vitro, hepatocytes from virally infected mice also were resistant to APAP-induced injury but sensitive to NAPQI. Rather than potentiating APAP-induced liver injury, acute viral hepatitis in this model resulted in selective down-regulation of APAP metabolizing P450s in liver and decreased the risk of APAP hepatotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yonas Getachew
- Division of Liver and Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-9151, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Bertoletti A, Tan AT, Gehring AJ. HBV-Specific Adaptive Immunity. Viruses 2009; 1:91-103. [PMID: 21994540 PMCID: PMC3185487 DOI: 10.3390/v1020091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2009] [Revised: 07/08/2009] [Accepted: 07/16/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The successful control of HBV infection requires an efficient expansion of distinct elements of the adaptive immune system (B cells, helper and cytotoxic T cells) that, due to the hepatotropic nature of HBV, need to operate in the liver parenchyma. In this respect, we will discuss broad features of HBV immunity in patients with resolved or chronic HBV infection and analyze how the liver environment can directly modulate HBV-immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bertoletti
- Laboratory of Hepatic Viral Diseases, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*Star), 30 Medical Drive, 117609, Singapore; E-Mails: ;
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*Star), Singapore
- Program Emerging Viral Diseases Unit, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-mail: ; Tel.: +65 64070091; Fax: +65 67766837
| | - Anthony T. Tan
- Laboratory of Hepatic Viral Diseases, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*Star), 30 Medical Drive, 117609, Singapore; E-Mails: ;
| | - Adam J. Gehring
- Laboratory of Hepatic Viral Diseases, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*Star), 30 Medical Drive, 117609, Singapore; E-Mails: ;
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Giannandrea M, Pierce RH, Crispe IN. Indirect action of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in liver injury during the CD8+ T cell response to an adeno-associated virus vector in mice. Hepatology 2009; 49:2010-20. [PMID: 19291774 PMCID: PMC2871665 DOI: 10.1002/hep.22869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED CD8+ T cells can cause hepatocellular injury by two distinct mechanisms. In addition to their direct cytotoxic effect, there is also collateral liver injury, which occurs when cells are killed in an antigen-independent manner. Whereas immune effector cytokines interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) have both been implicated in various forms of hepatitis, their respective roles in direct and/or collateral liver damage remains unclear. In order to investigate these elements of liver injury, we developed a new experimental model of CD8+ T-cell-mediated hepatitis based on an adeno-associated virus-based gene therapy vector. This vector is used to deliver antigen to hepatocytes, and CD8+ T cells specific for the vector-encoded transgene are adoptively transferred to produce liver immunopathology. In this experimental model, CD8+ T-cell IFNgamma acts on Kupffer cells, inducing TNFalpha secretion and liver injury. Both IFNgamma and TNFalpha are important in this injury process, but TNFalpha acts as an autocrine amplifier of Kupffer cell function, rather than as a direct effector of hepatocellular damage. CONCLUSIONS TNFalpha indirectly promotes liver damage and is not a direct hepatotoxic agent. IFNgamma also indirectly contributes to liver injury through Kupffer cell activation while, in parallel, directly promoting hepatitis through induction of hepatocyte major histocompatability complex class I. In principle, it may be possible to ameliorate this immunopathologic indirect mechanism by developing therapies that target Kupffer cells, without impairing CD8+ T-cell-mediated antiviral immunity. This would have great therapeutic potential in chronic viral hepatitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Giannandrea
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester NY 14642-8609, USA.
| | - Robert H. Pierce
- Schering-Plough Biopharma, 901 California Ave, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
| | - Ian Nicholas Crispe
- The Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 North Westlake Avenue, Seattle, WA 98019
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Kuhla A, Eipel C, Abshagen K, Siebert N, Menger MD, Vollmar B. Role of the perforin/granzyme cell death pathway in D-Gal/LPS-induced inflammatory liver injury. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 296:G1069-76. [PMID: 19264954 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.90689.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes and their granule components, such as perforin and granzyme, play an important role in the defense of hepatic infections caused by different pathogens. Moreover, it has been shown in vitro that hepatocytes can initiate cell death via a perforin-dependent mechanism. Although it is well known that hepatocellular apoptosis in D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (D-Gal/LPS)-associated liver failure is mediated by TNF-alpha-dependent Fas/FasL cytotoxicity, there is no information on the role of perforin-mediated mechanisms in vivo. Therefore, we studied whether the cytolytic perforin/granzyme pathway contributes to the D-Gal/LPS-associated hepatotoxicity. Perforin knockout (Pko) mice showed significantly higher hepatic TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA expression as well as plasma TNF-alpha and IL-6 concentrations within the first hour upon D-Gal/LPS challenge compared with perforin wild-type (Pwt) mice. At 6 h upon D-Gal/LPS challenge, Pko mice further presented with higher transaminase release and onconecrotic tissue damage, whereas hepatocellular apoptosis and caspase-3 cleavage remained unaffected by the perforin deficiency. Pretreatment with a recombinant human TNF-alpha receptor fusion protein attenuated necrotic and apoptotic tissue damage and reduced plasma transaminase activities as well as cytokine release, thereby preventing acute liver failure in Pko mice as effectively as in Pwt mice. These data do not only confirm the significance of TNF-alpha as distal mediator of hepatic injury in this model but simultaneously reveal a contribution of a perforin-dependent immunoregulation, limiting the D-Gal/LPS-induced overwhelming cytokine release and onconecrotic tissue injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angela Kuhla
- Institute for Experimental Surgery, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Boonstra A, Woltman AM, Janssen HLA. Immunology of hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infections. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2008; 22:1049-61. [PMID: 19187866 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpg.2008.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) viruses are the two major causes of chronic liver inflammation worldwide. Despite distinct virologic features, both viruses are preferentially hepatotropic, not directly cytopathic, and elicit liver diseases that share several aspects of their natural history. HBV and HCV infections also share some important features of the adaptive antiviral immune response. We describe the innate immune response in the early phase following infection, and how these early events may influence the development of the adaptive immune response in these two important viral infections. The mechanisms by which high levels of viral antigens, liver immunological features, the presence of regulatory T cells and impaired dendritic cell functions may maintain the HBV- and HCV-specific immunological failure, characteristic of chronic hepatitis B and C patients, are also evaluated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andre Boonstra
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
GammadeltaT cells initiate acute inflammation and injury in adenovirus-infected liver via cytokine-chemokine cross talk. J Virol 2008; 82:9564-76. [PMID: 18667515 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00927-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging studies suggest an important role for the innate immune response in replication-defective adenovirus (Ad)-mediated acute liver toxicity. Specifically, classical innate immune cells (including NK cells, neutrophils, and Kupffer cells) have all been implicated in the development of Ad-mediated acute liver toxicity. The nonclassical innate immune T cell, the gammadeltaT cell, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of several viral infections that predominantly affect the mucosa and brain, but the specific role in the pathology of AdLacZ-mediated acute liver inflammation and injury as well as accompanying vector clearance is largely unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that a CXCL9-CXCR3-dependent mechanism governed the accumulation of gammadeltaT cells in the livers of mice infected with Ad expressing the Escherichia coli LacZ gene (AdLacZ). We also showed a critical role for gammadeltaT cells in initiating acute liver toxicity after AdLacZ administration, driven in part by the ability of gammadeltaT cells to promote the recruitment of the conventional T cell, the CD8(+) T cell, into the liver. Furthermore, reduced hepatic injury in AdLacZ-infected gammadeltaT-cell-deficient mice was associated with lower hepatic levels of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and CXCL9, an IFN-gamma-inducible chemokine. Finally, our study highlighted a key role for IFN-gamma and CXCL9 cross talk acting in a feedback loop to drive the proinflammatory effects of gammadeltaT cells during AdLacZ-mediated acute liver toxicity. Specifically, intracellular IFN-gamma produced by activated hepatic gammadeltaT cells interacts with hepatocytes to mediate hepatic CXCL9 production, with the consequent accumulation of CXCR3-bearing gammadeltaT cells in the liver to cause acute liver damage without vector clearance.
Collapse
|
27
|
Stout-Delgado HW, Getachew Y, Miller BC, Thiele DL. Intrahepatic lymphocyte expression of dipeptidyl peptidase I-processed granzyme B and perforin induces hepatocyte expression of serine proteinase inhibitor 6 (Serpinb9/SPI-6). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:6561-7. [PMID: 17982045 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.10.6561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human proteinase inhibitor 9 (PI-9/serpinB9) and the murine ortholog, serine proteinase inhibitor 6 (SPI-6/serpinb9) are members of a family of intracellular serine proteinase inhibitors (serpins). PI-9 and SPI-6 expression in immune-privileged cells, APCs, and CTLs protects these cells against the actions of granzyme B, and when expressed in tumor cells or virally infected hepatocytes, confers resistance to killing by CTL and NK cells. The present studies were designed to assess the existence of any correlation between granzyme B activity in intrahepatic lymphocytes and induction of hepatic SPI-6 expression. To this end, SPI-6, PI-9, and serpinB9 homolog expression was examined in response to IFN-alpha treatment and during in vivo adenoviral infection of the liver. SPI-6 mRNA expression increased 10- to 100-fold in the liver after IFN-alpha stimulation and during the course of viral infection, whereas no significant up-regulation of SPI-8 and <5-fold increases in other PI-9/serpinB9 homolog mRNAs was observed. Increased SPI-6 gene expression during viral infection correlated with influxes of NK cells and CTL. Moreover, IFN-alpha-induced up-regulation of hepatocyte SPI-6 mRNA expression was not observed in NK cell-depleted mice. Additional experiments using genetically altered mice either deficient in perforin or unable to process or express granzyme B indicated that SPI-6 is selectively up-regulated in hepatocytes in response to infiltration of the liver by NK cells that express perforin and enzymatically active granzyme B.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather W Stout-Delgado
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Stout-Delgado HW, Getachew Y, Rogers TE, Miller BC, Thiele DL. The role of serpinb9/serine protease inhibitor 6 in preventing granzyme B-dependent hepatotoxicity. Hepatology 2007; 46:1530-40. [PMID: 17685438 PMCID: PMC2659535 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Virally infected hepatocytes are resistant to cytotoxic lymphocyte killing by perforin-dependent and granzyme-dependent effector mechanisms. The present studies were designed to examine the role of serine protease inhibitor 6 (SPI-6) in limiting granzyme B-dependent cytotoxic effector mechanisms in the liver. SPI-6-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) administration to C57Bl/6J (B6) mice elicited transient alanine aminotransferase (ALT) elevations that were not observed in either granzyme B-deficient B6 (B6.gzmb(-/-)) or natural killer (NK) cell-depleted B6 mice. When SPI-6 expression was abolished by siRNA administration at the time of infection with a recombinant, replication-deficient adenovirus [E1-deleted adenovirus encoding beta-galactosidase (AdCMV-LacZ)], earlier and dramatically increased, and earlier ALT elevations were observed in wild-type B6 but not in B6.gzmb(-/-) or NK cell-depleted mice. When a 3-fold higher dose of AdCMV-LacZ was administered to B6 mice, the coadministration of SPI-6 siRNA resulted in the early onset of lethal, acute liver failure. Of note, the accelerated clearance of AdCMV-LacZ was observed in recipients of SPI-6 siRNA. CONCLUSION These results indicate that the regulated expression of SPI-6 in hepatocytes during viral infection or following noninfectious causes of liver injury protects hepatocytes against excessively vigorous granzyme B-dependent killing but may also delay immune clearance of virally infected hepatocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather W Stout-Delgado
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a hepatotropic non-cytopathic DNA virus that despite the presence of an effective prophylactic vaccine is estimated to infect 300 million people, with a particularly high prevalence in Asia and Africa. It causes liver diseases that vary greatly in severity from person to person. Some subjects control infection efficiently and clear the virus from the bloodstream either without clinically evident liver disease or with an acute inflammation of the liver (acute hepatitis) that can resolve without long-term clinical sequelae. Other patients fail to clear the virus and develop chronic infection. Most chronically infected patients remain asymptomatic without life-threatening liver disease but 10-30% develop liver cirrhosis with possible progression to liver cancer. Outcome of infection and the pathogenesis of liver disease are determined by virus and host factors, which have been difficult tofully elucidate because the host range of HBV is limited to man and chimpanzees. However, the study of animal models of related Hepadnavirus infections and transgenic mouse able to express individual HBV genes or replicate the entire viral genome have clarified several aspects connected to HBV infection. Furthermore, the ability to analyze many immunological phenomena ex vivo through direct quantification of Ag-specific T cells in humans and chimps has considerably increased our knowledge of HBV pathogenesis. Here, we will discuss the distinctions of HBV adaptive immunity between resolved and persistently infected patients and the host/viral factors that can cause and maintain them.
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
Apoptosis is central for the control and elimination of viral infections. In chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, enhanced hepatocyte apoptosis and upregulation of the death inducing ligands CD95/Fas, TRAIL and TNFα occur. Nevertheless, HCV infection persists in the majority of patients. The impact of apoptosis in chronic HCV infection is not well understood. It may be harmful by triggering liver fibrosis, or essential in interferon (IFN) induced HCV elimination. For virtually all HCV proteins, pro- and anti-apoptotic effects have been described, especially for the core and NS5A protein. To date, it is not known which HCV protein affects apoptosis in vivo and whether the infectious virions act pro- or anti-apoptotic. With the availability of an infectious tissue culture system, we now can address pathophysiologically relevant issues. This review focuses on the effect of HCV infection and different HCV proteins on apoptosis and of the corresponding signaling cascades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Fischer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Freiburg, Hugstetter Strasse 55, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Willberg CB, Ward SM, Clayton RF, Naoumov NV, McCormick C, Proto S, Harris M, Patel AH, Klenerman P. Protection of hepatocytes from cytotoxic T cell mediated killing by interferon-alpha. PLoS One 2007; 2:e791. [PMID: 17726521 PMCID: PMC1949144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2007] [Accepted: 07/25/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cellular immunity plays a key role in determining the outcome of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, although the majority of infections become persistent. The mechanisms behind persistence are still not clear; however, the primary site of infection, the liver, may be critical. We investigated the ability of CD8+ T-cells (CTL) to recognise and kill hepatocytes under cytokine stimulation. METHODS/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS Resting hepatocytes cell lines expressed low levels of MHC Class I, but remained susceptible to CTL cytotoxicity. IFN-alpha treatment, in vitro, markedly increased hepatocyte MHC Class I expression, however, reduced sensitivity to CTL cytotoxicity. IFN-alpha stimulated hepatocyte lines were still able to present antigen and induce IFN-gamma expression in interacting CTL. Resistance to killing was not due to the inhibition of the FASL/FAS- pathway, as stimulated hepatocytes were still susceptible to FAS-mediated apoptosis. In vitro stimulation with IFN-alpha, or the introduction of a subgenomic HCV replicon into the HepG2 line, upregulated the expression of the granzyme-B inhibitor-proteinase inhibitor 9 (PI-9). PI-9 expression was also observed in liver tissue biopsies from patients with chronic HCV infection. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE IFN-alpha induces resistance in hepatocytes to perforin/granzyme mediate CTL killing pathways. One possible mechanism could be through the expression of the PI-9. Hindrance of CTL cytotoxicity could contribute to the chronicity of hepatic viral infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian B. Willberg
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Division of Experimental Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Scott M. Ward
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, Australia
| | | | - Nikolai V. Naoumov
- The University College London Institute of Hepatology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher McCormick
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Molecular Microbiology and Infection, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra Proto
- The University College London Institute of Hepatology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Harris
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Arvind H. Patel
- Medical Research Council Virology Unit, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Dunn C, Brunetto M, Reynolds G, Christophides T, Kennedy PT, Lampertico P, Das A, Lopes AR, Borrow P, Williams K, Humphreys E, Afford S, Adams DH, Bertoletti A, Maini MK. Cytokines induced during chronic hepatitis B virus infection promote a pathway for NK cell-mediated liver damage. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:667-80. [PMID: 17353365 PMCID: PMC2137916 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20061287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes chronic infection in more than 350 million people worldwide. It replicates in hepatocytes but is non-cytopathic; liver damage is thought to be immune mediated. Here, we investigated the role of innate immune responses in mediating liver damage in patients with chronic HBV infection. Longitudinal analysis revealed a temporal correlation between flares of liver inflammation and fluctuations in interleukin (IL)-8, interferon (IFN)-α, and natural killer (NK) cell expression of tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) directly ex vivo. A cross-sectional study confirmed these findings in patients with HBV-related liver inflammation compared with healthy carriers. Activated, TRAIL-expressing NK cells were further enriched in the liver of patients with chronic HBV infection, while their hepatocytes expressed increased levels of a TRAIL death–inducing receptor. IFN-α concentrations found in patients were capable of activating NK cells to induce TRAIL-mediated hepatocyte apoptosis in vitro. The pathogenic potential of this pathway could be further enhanced by the ability of the IFN-α/IL-8 combination to dysregulate the balance of death-inducing and regulatory TRAIL receptors expressed on hepatocytes. We conclude that NK cells may contribute to liver inflammation by TRAIL-mediated death of hepatocytes and demonstrate that this non-antigen–specific mechanism can be switched on by cytokines produced during active HBV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire Dunn
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London W1T 4JF, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Gehring AJ, Sun D, Kennedy PTF, Nolte-'t Hoen E, Lim SG, Wasser S, Selden C, Maini MK, Davis DM, Nassal M, Bertoletti A. The level of viral antigen presented by hepatocytes influences CD8 T-cell function. J Virol 2007; 81:2940-9. [PMID: 17202217 PMCID: PMC1866017 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02415-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8 T cells exert their antiviral function through cytokines and lysis of infected cells. Because hepatocytes are susceptible to noncytolytic mechanisms of viral clearance, CD8 T-cell antiviral efficiency against hepatotropic viruses has been linked to their capacity to produce gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). On the other hand, intrahepatic cytokine production triggers the recruitment of mononuclear cells, which sustain acute and chronic liver damage. Using virus-specific CD8 T cells and human hepatocytes, we analyzed the modulation of virus-specific CD8 T-cell function after recognition peptide-pulsed or virally infected hepatocytes. We observed that hepatocyte antigen presentation was generally inefficient, and the quantity of viral antigen strongly influenced CD8 T-cell antiviral function. High levels of hepatitis B virus production induced robust IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha production in virus-specific CD8 T cells, while limiting amounts of viral antigen, both in hepatocyte-like cells and naturally infected human hepatocytes, preferentially stimulated CD8 T-cell degranulation. Our data document a mechanism where virus-specific CD8 T-cell function is influenced by the quantity of virus produced within hepatocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Gehring
- UCL Institute of Hepatology, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Kawamura H, Govindarajan S, Aswad F, Machida K, Lai MMC, Sung VMH, Dennert G. HCV core expression in hepatocytes protects against autoimmune liver injury and promotes liver regeneration in mice. Hepatology 2006; 44:936-44. [PMID: 17006910 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes acute and chronic liver disease often leading to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Numerous studies have shown that despite induction of virus specific immunity, a curative response is often not attained; this has led to the hypothesis that HCV genes modulate immunity, thereby enabling chronic infections. This study examined the effects on immune-mediated liver injury in transgenic mice expressing core protein throughout the body and bone marrow chimeras expressing core protein in either the lymphoid compartment or liver parenchyma. Presence of core protein in the liver parenchyma but not in lymphoid cells protects from autoimmune hepatitis induced by mitogen concanavalin A (ConA). Consistent with this observation, core transgenic hepatocytes are relatively resistant to death induced by anti-Fas antibody and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). This protective effect is associated with preferential activation of signal transducer and activation of transcription factor 3 (STAT3) versus STAT1 in livers of ConA-injected animals. In agreement with this effect of core protein on the Janus kinase (JAK)-STAT signaling pathway, transgenic mice accelerate liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy but are not protected from hepatocyte death. In conclusion, HCV core inhibits STAT1 and stimulates STAT3 activation, which protects infected hepatocytes from attack by the cell-mediated immune system and promotes their proliferation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Kawamura
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90089-9176, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Chen J, Hsu HC, Zajac AJ, Wu Q, Yang P, Xu X, McPherson SA, Li J, Curiel DT, Mountz JD. In vivo analysis of adenovirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte response in mice deficient in CD28, fas ligand, and perforin. Hum Gene Ther 2006; 17:669-82. [PMID: 16776575 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2006.17.669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenoviruses (Ad) have been extensively studied as gene delivery vectors in gene therapy and as vaccine carriers. The cell-mediated cytotoxicity induced by Ad is of great interest in both applications. However, the mechanism underlying Ad-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) generation and effector function remains unclear. In this study, we used a novel MHC class I tetramer and an in vivo CTL assay to examine the role of CD28, perforin, Fas ligand (FasL), and TNF-alpha in the generation and function of Ad-specific CTLs in vivo. During the primary response, there was a significant defect in both the generation and in vivo effector function of Ad-specific CTLs in CD28-/- mice, but not in CD4+ T cell-depleted mice or CD4-/- mice. The relative role of CTL effector molecules was assayed by in vivo CTL assay in perforin- or FasL-mutant mice, using donor cells from Fas-deficient or TNFR1/TNFR2-deficient mice. The results indicated that the in vivo CTL activity is mediated mainly by perforin. In the absence of perforin, production of FasL, but not TNF-alpha, by the CTLs results in lower level Ad-specific killing of target cells. These results provide important implications concerning the development of safe and effective Ad vectors for gene therapy and vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, and Veterans Administration Medical Center, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major cause of chronic liver inflammation worldwide. Recent knowledge of the virological and immunological events secondary to HBV infection has increased our understanding of the mechanisms involved in viral clearance and persistence. In this review, how the early virological and immunological events might influence the development of a coordinate activation of adaptive immunity necessary to control HBV infection is analysed. The mechanism(s) by which high levels of viral antigens, liver immunological features, regulatory cells and dendritic cell defects might maintain the HBV-specific immunological collapse, typical of chronic hepatitis B patients, is also examined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bertoletti
- The UCL Institute of Hepatology, University College of London, 69-75 Chenies Mews, London WC1E 6HX, UK
| | - Adam J Gehring
- The UCL Institute of Hepatology, University College of London, 69-75 Chenies Mews, London WC1E 6HX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Chen J, Hsu HC, Zajac AJ, Wu Q, Yang P, Xu X, McPherson SA, Li J, Curiel DT, Mountz JD. In Vivo Analysis of Adenovirus-Specific Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Response in Mice Deficient in CD28, Fas Ligand, and Perforin. Hum Gene Ther 2006. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2006.17.ft-217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
38
|
Mozer-Lisewska I, Dworacki G, Kaczmarek E, Sluzewski W, Kaczmarek M, Woźniak A, Zeromski J. Significance of Alterations in PBMC Immunophenotype of Children with Chronic Viral Hepatitis C - the Role of Dendritic Cells. Scand J Immunol 2006; 63:311-9. [PMID: 16623932 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2006.01741.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There are differences in the clinical course of chronic viral hepatitis C between adults and children, but it is generally accepted that the disease has cell-mediated immune background. The aim of this study was to evaluate PBMC subsets in children with chronic hepatitis C before treatment in order to find some predictive factors, useful for patients management. Several PBMC subsets, in particular lymphoid and dendritic cell (DC) ones, were tested by flow cytometry in HCV(+) paediatric patients (n = 46) and in control children matched in terms of age and sex (n = 20). Data were subjected to extensive statistics. It was found that cells with cytotoxic potential such as CD8(+)CD28(-) T cells, NK and NKT cells as well as lineage(-)HLA-DR(+) DC were increased in per cent values, while CD4(+) T cells and CD4:CD8 ratio were decreased in hepatitis C group. In HCV(+) patients, CD4(+) T cells were inversely correlated with alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and with viraemia. DC subset of myeloid origin (CD11c(+)) assessed both in per cent values and as mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of HLA-DR expression was shown to be downregulated in hepatitis patients, in spite of increased numbers. To conclude, PBMC subsets, and in particular DC, are affected by HCV chronic infection in children, reflected by the correlation with clinical parameters, such as ALT and viraemia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I Mozer-Lisewska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Child Neurology, Univeristy of Medical Sciences, Ul. Szpitalna, Poznan, Poland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Chen J, Zajac AJ, McPherson SA, Hsu HC, Yang P, Wu Q, Xu X, Wang X, Fujihashi K, Curiel DT, Mountz JD. Primary adenovirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte response occurs after viral clearance and liver enzyme elevation. Gene Ther 2005; 12:1079-88. [PMID: 15815704 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response is a major obstacle to effective delivery of adenovirus gene therapy. However, its relative role in viral clearance, transgene elimination and hepatotoxicity remains unclear. In this paper, we present an analysis of viral clearance and liver toxicity in relation to the induction of the virus-specific CD8 T-cell response revealed by an MHC class I tetramer. A surprisingly high number of tetramer+ CD8 T cells were found in the liver and lung and reached peak values at days 8 and 10, respectively, post-infection. Nearly 100% of these tetramer+ CD8 T cells expressed high levels of granzyme B and IFNgamma. Remarkably, liver viral load and liver enzyme elevation peaked early, at days 2 and 4, respectively, post-infection, before the specific CTL response was detectable. After generation of CTLs, there was only minimal liver damage or further decrease in virus titer. These results indicated that the primary peak response of tetramer+ CTLs does not correlate with the elimination of adenovirus or liver cytotoxic response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0007, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
El-Hayek JM, Rogers TE, Brown GR. The role of TNF in hepatic histopathological manifestations and hepatic CD8+ T cell alloresponses in murine MHC class I disparate GVHD. J Leukoc Biol 2005; 78:1001-7. [PMID: 16081594 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1204730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Transfer of B6 T cells to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I disparate bm1 x B6 F1 mice leads to the development of hepatic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) characterized by an active hepatitis with portal and lobular inflammation as well as bile duct inflammation and venulitis. The present studies determined the role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in hepatic GVHD. B6 responder cells were cultured with irradiated MHC class I disparate bm1 or syngeneic spleen cells (SpC) in the presence or absence of TNF receptor inhibitor [TNFR-immunoglobulin (Ig)]. Recipient bm1 x B6 F1 mice were irradiated (600 cGy) and reconstituted with 5 x 10(6) T cell-depleted B6 bone marrow cells and 1 x 10(7) B6 SpC. Mice were injected with an adenovirus encoding TNFR-Ig [TNF inhibitor-encoding adenovirus (Adv-TNFi)] or beta-galactosidase (Adv-betagal). Severity of liver GVHD was assessed by a composite histopathological score consisting of the sum of scores for venulitis, lobular hepatitis, and bile duct inflammation. Addition of TNFR-Ig reduced cell proliferation in mixed lymphocyte cultures using B6 responder SpC by 71% +/- 12.8% and interferon-gamma responses by 78% +/- 18%. GVHD-induced "wasting disease" was reduced in Adv-TNFi recipients [4.4%+/-5.2% weight loss (n=11)] compared with Adv-betagal recipients [16.1%+/-7.6% weight loss (n=11; P=0.0004)] 9 days post-transplant. Composite histopathological scores and individual venulitis scores were reduced with the addition of Adv-TNFi. Hepatic CD8+ T cells in the recipients of Adv-TNFi were reduced as compared with recipients of Adv-betagal. In conclusion, Adv-TNFi reduces MHC class I disparate alloproliferative responses and hepatic GVHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jihad M El-Hayek
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235-9151, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Minagawa M, Kawamura H, Liu Z, Govindarajan S, Dennert G. Suppression of adenoviral gene expression in the liver: role of innate vs adaptive immunity and their cell lysis mechanisms. Liver Int 2005; 25:622-32. [PMID: 15910500 DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2005.01097.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injection of adenoviral constructs causes liver infection prompting immunity, which suppress viral gene expression. Innate and adaptive immunity mediate these processes raising the question which pathways are the most prominent. METHODS Adenovirus expressing the beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) gene was injected into normal and immunodeficient mice. Elimination of beta-gal-expressing hepatocytes and increases in liver enzymes were assayed. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I densities, perforin channel insertion and apoptosis by Fas and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha were assayed. RESULTS At high virus doses, suppression of viral gene expression was as efficient in immunodeficient as in normal mice, while at low doses effects of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) were demonstrable. Despite CTL priming and elimination of infected hepatocytes no liver injury is detected. Hepatocyte MHC I densities were able to trigger CTL granule exocytosis and perforin lysis in vitro but not in vivo. This is we show is because of decreased sensitivity of hepatocytes from infected mice to perforin and increased sensitivity to Fas and TNF-alpha lysis. CONCLUSION Effector cells of the innate immune system are exceedingly effective in suppressing adenoviral gene expression. Perforin-independent pathways, those mediated by TNF-alpha and Fas are very efficient in hepatocytes from virus-infected livers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Minagawa
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033-0800, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Yamaguchi S, Tashiro-Yamaji J, Lee K, Takahashi T, Sano K, Endo Y, Nakanishi M, Eguchi A, Okada M, Nomi H, Yamamoto Y, Takenaka H, Kubota T, Yoshida R. IFN-γ: A Cytokine Essential for Rejection of CTL-Resistant, Virus-Infected Cells. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2005; 25:328-37. [PMID: 15957956 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2005.25.328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently demonstrated differential susceptibility of cells expressing viral antigen to killing by antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). In addition, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) has been implicated in the clearance of some viruses from tissues. We explored the role of IFN-gamma in the cytotoxicity of Sendai virus-specific CTLs against virus-infected RL(male symbol)1 (T cell leukemia) or Meth A (fibrosarcoma) cells, as well as the growth of subcutaneously (s.c.) transplanted, virus-infected cells in IFN-gamma(+/+) or IFN-gamma(/) mice of the syngeneic strain (BALB/c). Sendai virus-specific CTLs were cytotoxic against virus-infected RL(male symbol)1 cells, and s.c. transplanted, virus-infected RL(male symbol)1 cells were acutely rejected from IFN-gamma(+/+) or IFN-gamma(/) mice. In contrast, the CTLs were inactive toward virus-infected Meth A cells, but s.c. transplanted, virus-infected Meth A cells were acutely rejected from IFN-gamma(+/+) but not IFN-gamma(/) mice. The s.c. growth of virus-infected Meth A cells in the mutant mice was markedly inhibited by s.c. injections of IFN-gamma, and the rejection from IFN-gamma(+/+) mice was delayed after specific elimination of macrophages by intravenous (i.v.) injections of dichloromethylene diphosphonatecontaining liposomes. These results suggest an essential role of IFN-gamma and involvement of macrophage in the rejection of CTL-resistant, virus-infected cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satoko Yamaguchi
- Department of Physiology, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Whitton JL, Slifka MK, Liu F, Nussbaum AK, Whitmire JK. The regulation and maturation of antiviral immune responses. Adv Virus Res 2005; 63:181-238. [PMID: 15530562 PMCID: PMC7125551 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3527(04)63003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Lindsay Whitton
- Department of Neuropharmacology, CVN-9, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abougergi MS, Gidner SJ, Spady DK, Miller BC, Thiele DL. Fas and TNFR1, but not cytolytic granule-dependent mechanisms, mediate clearance of murine liver adenoviral infection. Hepatology 2005; 41:97-105. [PMID: 15619234 PMCID: PMC2666068 DOI: 10.1002/hep.20504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
After intravenous injection of replication-deficient adenovirus, hepatocytes are transduced and express high levels of adenovirus-encoded genes. However, adenovirally encoded gene expression is ablated rapidly by CD8+ T-cell-dependent mechanisms. Thus, this model is suitable for examining intrahepatic cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) effector mechanisms. In the present studies, recombinant adenoviruses encoding secreted (human apolipoprotein A-I) or intracellular (beta-galactosidase) gene products were infused into mice with genetic deficiencies affecting the granule exocytosis-, Fas-, or tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1)-mediated pathways of CTL and natural killer cell effector function; the rates of clearance of adenovirus-encoded gene products were assessed. Clearance of secreted or intracellular adenoviral gene products was not delayed in perforin-deficient mice or dipeptidyl peptidase I-deficient mice, which fail to process and activate granzyme A or granzyme B. TNFR1-deficient mice also exhibited no delay in clearance of adenoviral gene products. However, adenoviral clearance from Fas-deficient mice was delayed, and such delays were much greater in mice deficient in both TNFR1 and Fas. In contrast, chimeric mice lacking both hepatic Fas and lymphocyte perforin function exhibited no greater delay in adenoviral clearance than chimeras deficient only in hepatic Fas expression. In conclusion, Fas-dependent mechanisms are required for efficient clearance of virally infected hepatocytes and, in Fas-deficient animals, TNFR1-dependent mechanisms provide an alternative mechanism for hepatic adenovirus clearance. In contrast, perforin- and granule protease-dependent cytotoxicity mechanisms play no apparent role in clearance of adenovirus from the liver.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marwan S Abougergi
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9151, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Rutigliano JA, Graham BS. Prolonged production of TNF-alpha exacerbates illness during respiratory syncytial virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:3408-17. [PMID: 15322205 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.5.3408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
CD8(+) CTL are the main effector cells responsible for resolving viral infections. However, the CTL response to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in mice facilitates viral clearance at the expense of significant immunopathology. Previous reports have shown a strong correlation between the mechanism of CTL activity and the severity of RSV-induced illness. Furthermore, experiments in perforin knockout mice revealed that antiviral cytokine production temporally correlated with RSV-induced illness. In the current study, we show that TNF-alpha is the dominant mediator of RSV-associated illness, and it is also important for clearance of virus-infected cells during the early stages of infection. We also demonstrate that IFN-gamma plays a protective role in conjunction with perforin/granzyme-mediated killing. Preliminary experiments in gld mice that express nonfunctional Fas ligand (FasL) revealed that RSV-induced illness is significantly reduced in the absence of FasL-mediated killing. Antiviral cytokine production was not elevated in the absence of FasL, suggesting a possible link between FasL and antiviral cytokine activity. This work shows that multiple phenotypic subsets of CD8(+) CTLs respond to RSV infection, each with varying capacities for clearance of virus-infected cells and the induction of illness. In addition, the revelation that TNF-alpha is the principal mediator of RSV-induced illness means that administration of TNF receptor antagonists, in combination with antiviral therapy, may be an effective method to treat RSV infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Rutigliano
- Vaccine Research Center/National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
|
47
|
Barrie MB, Stout HW, Abougergi MS, Miller BC, Thiele DL. Antiviral Cytokines Induce Hepatic Expression of the Granzyme B Inhibitors, Proteinase Inhibitor 9 and Serine Proteinase Inhibitor 6. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:6453-9. [PMID: 15128837 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.10.6453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Expression of the granzyme B inhibitors, human proteinase inhibitor 9 (PI-9), or the murine orthologue, serine proteinase inhibitor 6 (SPI-6), confers resistance to CTL or NK killing by perforin- and granzyme-dependent effector mechanisms. In light of prior studies indicating that virally infected hepatocytes are selectively resistant to this CTL effector mechanism, the present studies investigated PI-9 and SPI-6 expression in hepatocytes and hepatoma cells in response to adenoviral infection and to cytokines produced during antiviral immune responses. Neither PI-9 nor SPI-6 expression was detected by immunoblotting in uninfected murine or human hepatocytes. Similarly, human Huh-7 hepatoma cells were found to express only very low levels of PI-9 relative to levels detected in perforin- and granzyme-resistant CTL or lymphokine-activated killer cells. Following in vivo adenoviral infection or in vitro culture with IFN-alphabeta or IFN-gamma, SPI-6 expression was induced in murine hepatocytes. Similarly, after culture with IFN-alpha, induction of PI-9 mRNA and protein expression was observed in human hepatocytes and Huh-7 cells. IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha also induced 4- to 10-fold higher levels of PI-9 mRNA expression in Huh-7 cells, whereas levels of mRNA encoding a related serine proteinase inhibitor, proteinase inhibitor 8, were unaffected by culture of Huh-7 cells with IFN-alpha, IFN-gamma, or TNF-alpha. These findings indicate that cytokines that promote antiviral cytopathic responses also regulate expression of the cytoprotective molecules, PI-9 and SPI-6, in hepatocytes that are potential targets of CTL and NK effector mechanisms.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adenoviridae Infections/enzymology
- Adenoviridae Infections/immunology
- Animals
- Antiviral Agents/pharmacology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/enzymology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/immunology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/virology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytokines/pharmacology
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic
- Granzymes
- Hepatocytes/enzymology
- Hepatocytes/immunology
- Hepatocytes/virology
- Humans
- Immunity, Innate
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred MRL lpr
- Mice, Knockout
- Perforin
- Pore Forming Cytotoxic Proteins
- Serine Endopeptidases/biosynthesis
- Serine Endopeptidases/metabolism
- Serine Endopeptidases/physiology
- Serpins/biosynthesis
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud B Barrie
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Disson O, Haouzi D, Desagher S, Loesch K, Hahne M, Kremer EJ, Jacquet C, Lemon SM, Hibner U, Lerat H. Impaired clearance of virus-infected hepatocytes in transgenic mice expressing the hepatitis C virus polyprotein. Gastroenterology 2004; 126:859-72. [PMID: 14988840 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2003.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Multiple molecular mechanisms are likely to contribute to the establishment of persistent infection by hepatitis C virus (HCV). The aim of this work was to study the evasion of cell-mediated antiviral immune responses in transgenic mice with liver-targeted expression of the hepatitis C viral genome. These mice develop steatosis and hepatocellular carcinoma and constitute a murine model of chronic HCV infection. METHODS Mice of the FL-N/35 lineage were infected with replication-deficient adenoviral vectors encoding beta-galactosidase, and the persistence of infected cells was measured by histochemistry and enzymatic assays. RESULTS Hepatocytes from the HCV(+) transgenic mice are deficient in eliminating an adenoviral infection, despite an apparently normal T-cell response. The defect in adenoviral clearance was associated with resistance of transgenic hepatocytes to apoptosis induced by Fas/APO1/CD95 death receptor stimulation, a major pathway of cell killing by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The attenuation of Fas-mediated apoptosis observed in the murine model was associated with a reduced abundance of Bid, a BH3-only member of the Bcl-2 family of apoptosis regulators. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that viral evasion of cell-mediated immune responses leading to apoptotic death of hepatocytes may contribute to viral persistence. Such a mechanism might also contribute to the development of liver cancer in HCV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Disson
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire, Centre National Recherche Scientifique, Unite Mixte de Recherche 5535, IFR 122, Montpelier, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre A Henkart
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1360, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Kafrouni MI, Brown GR, Thiele DL. The role of TNF-TNFR2 interactions in generation of CTL responses and clearance of hepatic adenovirus infection. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 74:564-71. [PMID: 12960267 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0103035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Deficiency or inhibition of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) significantly prolongs hepatic expression of recombinant adenoviral vectors. To explore mechanisms responsible for this observation, the present studies examined the effects of TNF versus TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) or TNFR2 deficiency on the course of antiviral-immune responses to a replication-deficient, beta-galactosidase-encoding recombinant adenovirus (AdCMV-lacZ). Clearance of AdCMV-lacZ was significantly delayed in TNF-deficient mice. Less pronounced but significant delays in AdCMV-lacZ clearance were observed in TNFR2-deficient but not TNFR1-deficient mice. Numbers of interferon-gamma expressing intrahepatic lymphocytes (IHL) were similar in AdCMV-lacZ-infected, TNF-deficient, TNFR1-deficient, TNFR2-deficient, and control mice. However, IHL isolated from AdCMV-lacZ-infected, TNF-deficient or AdCMV-lacZ-infected, TNFR2-deficient mice exhibited decreased levels of FasL expression and adenovirus-specific cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity. Similar defects in allo-specific killing of Fas-sensitive hepatocyte targets by TNF-deficient or TNFR2-deficient but not TNFR1-deficient CTL were also noted. No defects in generation of allo-specific cytotoxicity directed against perforin-sensitive target cells were noted in TNF-, TNFR1-, or TNFR2-deficient lymphocytes. These findings indicate that TNF/TNFR2 interactions facilitate generation of FasL-dependent CTL effector pathways that play an important role in in vivo antiviral-immune responses in the liver.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adenoviridae/immunology
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/physiology
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Fas Ligand Protein
- Interferon-gamma/analysis
- Liver/immunology
- Liver/virology
- Membrane Glycoproteins/analysis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C3H
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/physiology
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/physiology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michel I Kafrouni
- Department of Internal Medicine, Divison of Digestive and Liver Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 75390-9151, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|