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Suthar MS. Durability of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination. Semin Immunol 2024; 73:101884. [PMID: 38861769 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2024.101884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Infection with SARS-CoV-2 in humans has caused a pandemic of unprecedented dimensions. SARS-CoV-2 is primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets and targets ciliated epithelial cells in the nasal cavity, trachea, and lungs by utilizing the cellular receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The innate immune response, including type I and III interferons, inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β), innate immune cells (monocytes, DCs, neutrophils, natural killer cells), antibodies (IgG, sIgA, neutralizing antibodies), and adaptive immune cells (B cells, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells) play pivotal roles in mitigating COVID-19 disease. Broad and durable B-cell- and T-cell immunity elicited by infection and vaccination is essential for protection against severe disease, hospitalization and death. However, the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants that evade neutralizing antibodies continue to jeopardize vaccine efficacy. In this review, we highlight our understanding the infection- and vaccine-mediated humoral, B and T cell responses, the durability of the immune responses, and how variants continue to threaten the efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehul S Suthar
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Emory Center of Excellence of Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR), Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Center for Childhood Infections and Vaccines of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Mantus G, Nyhoff LE, Edara VV, Zarnitsyna VI, Ciric CR, Flowers MW, Norwood C, Ellis M, Hussaini L, Manning KE, Stephens K, Anderson EJ, Ahmed R, Suthar MS, Wrammert J. Pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 immunity influences potency, breadth, and durability of the humoral response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Cell Rep Med 2022; 3:100603. [PMID: 35480625 PMCID: PMC8960152 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic highlights the importance of determining the breadth and durability of humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination. Herein, we characterize the humoral response in 27 naive and 40 recovered vaccinees. SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody and memory B cell (MBC) responses are durable up to 6 months, although antibody half-lives are shorter for naive recipients. The magnitude of the humoral responses to vaccination strongly correlates with responses to initial SARS-CoV-2 infection. Neutralization titers are lower against SARS-CoV-2 variants in both recovered and naive vaccinees, with titers more reduced in naive recipients. While the receptor-binding domain (RBD) is the main neutralizing target of circulating antibodies, Moderna-vaccinated naives show a lesser reliance on RBDs, with >25% neutralization remaining after depletion of RBD-binding antibodies. Overall, we observe that vaccination induces higher peak titers and improves durability in recovered compared with naive vaccinees. These findings have broad implications for current vaccine strategies deployed against the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Single vaccine dose effectively boosts B cell responses in recovered subjects SARS-CoV-2-specific MBCs remain activated and increase over time in naive subjects Antibody response to vaccination is broader and more durable in recovered versus naive subjects Naive vaccinees have higher proportion of non-RBD-specific neutralizing antibodies
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Mantus
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lindsay E Nyhoff
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Venkata-Viswanadh Edara
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Veronika I Zarnitsyna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Caroline R Ciric
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maria W Flowers
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Carson Norwood
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Madison Ellis
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Laila Hussaini
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kelly E Manning
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Kathy Stephens
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Evan J Anderson
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mehul S Suthar
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jens Wrammert
- Department of Pediatrics, Centers for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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5
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Chen J, Vitetta L, Henson JD, Hall S. The intestinal microbiota and improving the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccinations. J Funct Foods 2021; 87:104850. [PMID: 34777578 PMCID: PMC8578005 DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2021.104850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Most COVID-19 cases are mild or asymptomatic and recover well, suggesting that effective immune responses ensue, which successfully eliminate SARS-CoV-2 viruses. However, a small proportion of patients develop severe COVID-19 with pathological immune responses. This indicates that a strong immune system balanced with anti-inflammatory mechanisms is critical for the recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infections. Many vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have now been developed for eliciting effective immune responses to protect from SARS-CoV-2 infections or reduce the severity of the disease if infected. Although uncommon, serious morbidity and mortality have resulted from both COVID-19 vaccine adverse reactions and lack of efficacy, and further improvement of efficacy and prevention of adverse effects are urgently warranted. Many factors could affect efficacy of these vaccines to achieve optimal immune responses. Dysregulation of the gut microbiota (gut dysbiosis) could be an important risk factor as the gut microbiota is associated with the development and maintenance of an effective immune system response. In this narrative review, we discuss the immune responses to SARS-CoV-2, how COVID-19 vaccines elicit protective immune responses, gut dysbiosis involvement in inefficacy and adverse effects of COVID-19 vaccines and the modulation of the gut microbiota by functional foods to improve COVID-19 vaccine immunisations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiezhong Chen
- Medlab Clinical, Department of Research, Sydney 2015, Australia
| | - Luis Vitetta
- Medlab Clinical, Department of Research, Sydney 2015, Australia.,The University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Jeremy D Henson
- Medlab Clinical, Department of Research, Sydney 2015, Australia.,The University of New South Wales, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Wales Clinical School, Sydney, Australia
| | - Sean Hall
- Medlab Clinical, Department of Research, Sydney 2015, Australia
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Köppert S, Wolf C, Becza N, Sautto GA, Franke F, Kuerten S, Ross TM, Lehmann PV, Kirchenbaum GA. Affinity Tag Coating Enables Reliable Detection of Antigen-Specific B Cells in Immunospot Assays. Cells 2021; 10:cells10081843. [PMID: 34440612 PMCID: PMC8394687 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessment of humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious agents is typically restricted to detecting antigen-specific antibodies in the serum. Rarely does immune monitoring entail assessment of the memory B-cell compartment itself, although it is these cells that engage in secondary antibody responses capable of mediating immune protection when pre-existing antibodies fail to prevent re-infection. There are few techniques that are capable of detecting rare antigen-specific B cells while also providing information regarding their relative abundance, class/subclass usage and functional affinity. In theory, the ELISPOT/FluoroSpot (collectively ImmunoSpot) assay platform is ideally suited for antigen-specific B-cell assessments since it provides this information at single-cell resolution for individual antibody-secreting cells (ASC). Here, we tested the hypothesis that antigen-coating efficiency could be universally improved across a diverse set of viral antigens if the standard direct (non-specific, low affinity) antigen absorption to the membrane was substituted by high-affinity capture. Specifically, we report an enhancement in assay sensitivity and a reduction in required protein concentrations through the capture of recombinant proteins via their encoded hexahistidine (6XHis) affinity tag. Affinity tag antigen coating enabled detection of SARS-CoV-2 Spike receptor binding domain (RBD)-reactive ASC, and also significantly improved assay performance using additional control antigens. Collectively, establishment of a universal antigen-coating approach streamlines characterization of the memory B-cell compartment after SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19 vaccinations, and facilitates high-throughput immune-monitoring efforts of large donor cohorts in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Köppert
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Carla Wolf
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Noémi Becza
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
| | - Giuseppe A. Sautto
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (G.A.S.); (T.M.R.)
| | - Fridolin Franke
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
| | - Stefanie Kuerten
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany;
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ted M. Ross
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (G.A.S.); (T.M.R.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Paul V. Lehmann
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
| | - Greg A. Kirchenbaum
- Research & Development Department, Cellular Technology Limited, Shaker Heights, OH 44122, USA; (S.K.); (C.W.); (N.B.); (F.F.); (P.V.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(216)-791-5084
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