Niosome: A future of targeted drug delivery systems

Breaking boundaries: the advancements in transdermal delivery of antibiotics

Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) for antibiotics have seen significant advances in recent years that aimed to improve the efficacy and safety of these drugs. TDDS offer many advantages over other conventional delivery systems such as non-invasiveness, controlled-release pattern, avoidance of first-pass metabolism. The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the recent advances in the TDDS of different groups of antibiotics including β-lactams, tetracyclines, macrolides, and lincosamides, utilized for their effective delivery through the skin and to explore the challenges associated with this field. The majority of antibiotics do not have favorable properties for passive transdermal delivery. Thus, novel strategies have been employed to improve the delivery of antibiotics through the skin, such as the use of nanotechnology (nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, vesicular carriers, and liposomes) or the physical enhancement techniques like microneedles and ultrasound. In conclusion, the transdermal delivery systems could be a promising method for delivering antibiotics that have the potential to improve patient outcomes and enhance the efficacy of drugs. Further research and development are still needed to explore the potential of delivering more antibiotic drugs by using various transdermal drug delivery approaches.

The modulatory effects of tyrosol and nano-tyrosol on anxiety-like behavior and emotional memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

The effects of tyrosol and nano-tyrosol on the modulation of anxiety-like behavior and memory processes were evaluated in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Male diabetic rats were orally treated with 1 ml of saline, nano-niosome, tyrosol, and nano-tyrosol (20 mg/dl) for 30 days. Anxiety-like behavior and memory process were evaluated by an elevated plus-maze (EPM) test-retest paradigm. The results showed that a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of streptozotocin (50 mg/kg) raised blood glucose. While daily intragastric administration of tyrosol and nano-tyrosol reduced blood glucose. Induction of type II diabetes produced a distorted cellular arrangement whereas treatment with tyrosol and nano-tyrosol showed a typical cellular arrangement in the liver. Furthermore, induction of type II diabetes decreased %OAT (%open-arm time) but daily intragastric application of tyrosol (20 mg/dl) and nano-tyrosol (20 mg/dl) enhanced %OAT and %OAE (%open-arm entry) in the EPM when compared to the saline groups, showing anxiogenic- and anxiolytic-like effects, respectively. Also, induction of type II diabetes increased %OAT while daily intragastric administration of tyrosol (20 mg/dl) and nano-tyrosol (20 mg/dl) decreased %OAT and %OAE in the EPM in comparison to the saline groups, displaying impairment and improvement of emotional memory, respectively. Interestingly, nano-tyrosol exhibited the highest significant effect rather than tyrosol. Upon these results, we proposed the beneficial effects of tyrosol and nano-tyrosol on the modulation of anxiety-like behavior and memory processes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

A comparative study between curcumin and curcumin nanoparticles on reproductive performance and antioxidant system of aged roosters

Increased lipid peroxidation and decreased antioxidant status can result in reduced reproductive activity and fertility in aged male broiler breeders. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of curcumin supplements (natural or nanoparticles) on the sperm characteristics, antioxidant system, fertility, and hatchability of aged roosters (54-64 wk), and to estimate the relative bioavailability value (RBV) of nano-curcumin on the measured parameters including the hypo-osmotic swelling test (HOST), motility, viability, sperm count, volume, the concentration of testosterone, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), diameter of the spermatogenic tube (DST), epithelium thickness (EpiTh), spermatogonia count (SPcount), fertility, hatchability, and relative weight of testis (RW-testis). A total of 30 roosters were individually caged and randomly assigned to 5 treatments comprising control (without curcumin as the basal diet), basal diet + 15 mg/kg curcumin (CUR15), basal diet + 30 mg/kg curcumin (CUR30), basal diet + 15 mg/kg nano-curcumin (Nano15), and basal diet + 30 mg/kg nano-curcumin (Nano30) for 10 wk. The slope ratio method was used to estimate the bioavailability of nano-curcumin by regressing each response on supplemental curcumin intake. Increasing dietary curcumin (P < 0.001) elicited a linear response to all studied traits. The RBV for volume, viability, motility, HOST, RW-testis, and GPx were estimated as 135 (CI: 115-156%), 143 (CI: 114-173%), 159 (CI: 122-196%), 132 (CI: 107-157%), 195 (CI: 126-264%), 176 (CI: 103-249%), and 178% (28-328%), respectively. Our findings revealed that curcumin nanoparticles enhance the reproductive efficiency of aged breeder roosters. In addition, the curcumin nanoparticles RBV exceeded that of natural curcumin, suggesting that lower concentrations of curcumin nanoparticles could have a significant effect on reproductive characteristics.

Leflunomide nanocarriers: a new prospect of therapeutic applications

Leflunomide (LEF) is a well-known disease-modifying anti-rheumatic agent (DMARDs) that was approved in 1998 for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management. It is enzymatically converted into active metabolite teriflunomide (TER) inside the body. LEF and TER possess several pharmacological effects in a variety of diseases including multiple sclerosis, cancer, viral infections and neurobehavioral brain disorders. Despite the aforementioned pharmacological effects exploring these effects in nanomedicine applications has been focused mainly on RA and cancer treatment. This review summarises the main pharmacological, and pharmacokinetic effects of LEF along with highlighting the applications of nanoencapsulation of LEF and its metabolite in different diseases.

Folic acid modified precision nanocarriers: charting new frontiers in breast cancer management beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer presents a significant global health challenge, ranking highest incidence rate among all types of cancers. Functionalised nanocarriers offer a promising solution for precise drug delivery by actively targeting cancer cells through specific receptors, notably folate receptors. By overcoming the limitations of passive targeting in conventional therapies, this approach holds the potential for enhanced treatment efficacy through combination therapy. Encouraging outcomes from studies like in vitro and in vivo, underscore the promise of this innovative approach. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA (Folic acid) functionalised nanocarriers tailored for breast cancer management, discussing various chemical modification techniques for functionalization. It examines FA-conjugated nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics to enhance treatment efficacy and addresses the pharmacokinetic aspect of these functionalised nanocarriers. Additionally, the review integrates active targeting via folic acid with theranostics, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy, offering a comprehensive management strategy. Emphasising rigorous experimental validation for practical utility, the review underscores the need to bridge laboratory research to clinical application. While these functionalised nanocarriers show promise, their credibility and applicability in real-world settings necessitate thorough validation for effective clinical use.

Preparation and optimization of niosome encapsulated meropenem for significant antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates

Background

One of the targeted drug delivery systems is the use of nanocarriers, and one of these drug delivery systems is niosome. Niosome have a nano-vesicular structure and are composed of non-ionic surfactants. Objective: In this study, various niosome-encapsulated meropenem formulations were prepared. Subsequently, their antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities were evaluated against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains.

Methods

The physicochemical properties of niosomal formulations were characterized using a field scanning electron microscope, X-Ray diffraction, Zeta potential, and dynamic light scattering. Antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities were evaluated using broth microdilution and minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration, respectively. In addition, biofilm gene expression analysis was performed using quantitative Real-Time PCR. To evaluate biocompatibility, the cytotoxicity of niosome-encapsulated meropenem in a normal human diploid fibroblast (HDF) cell line was investigated using an MTT assay.

Results

An F1 formulation of niosome-encapsulated meropenem with a size of 51.3 ± 5.84 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 84.86 ± 3.14 % was achieved. The synthesized niosomes prevented biofilm capacity with a biofilm growth inhibition index of 69 % and significantly downregulated icaD, FnbA, Ebps, and Bap gene expression in MRSA strains (p < 0.05). In addition, the F1 formulation increased antibacterial activity by 4-6 times compared with free meropenem. Interestingly, the F1 formulation of niosome-encapsulated meropenem indicated cell viability >90 % at all tested concentrations against normal HDF cells. The results of the present study indicate that niosome-encapsulated meropenem increased antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities without profound cytotoxicity in normal human cells, which could prove useful as a good drug delivery system.

Transdermal Delivery System of Doxycycline-Loaded Niosomal Gels: Toward Enhancing Doxycycline Stability

Doxycycline (DOX) is an antimicrobial agent that is susceptible to photosensitivity and thermal degradation. It addition, it causes gastrointestinal side effects when taken orally. Therefore, the development of alternative formulations is necessary to improve drug stability and promote patient compliance. The aim of the present study was to encapsulate DOX in niosomes as a nanocarrier to deliver DOX transdermally and enhance its stability in the formulation. DOX niosomes were prepared using nonionic surfactants, cholesterol, and dihexadecyl phosphate (DCP). After that, niosomes were characterized in terms of practical size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), morphology, and entrapment efficacy (EE%). DOX niosomal gels were then prepared using Carbopol and penetration enhancers (poly(ethylene glycol) 400 (PEG 400) and propylene glycol (PG)). The flux of DOX from the optimized formula was 322.86 μg/cm2/h over 5 h, which equates to 71.2% of DOX. Furthermore, neither the DOX niosomal gel (D3) nor the comparable blank niosomal gel had a negative influence on human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells. The findings of the antimicrobial effectiveness of DOX niosomes indicated that the niosomal formulation improved the antibacterial activity of DOX against E. coli. Permeation studies demonstrated significantly higher DOX permeation when the niosomal gel was applied to rat skin, compared to the conventional gel. Permeability parameters such as flux and the permeability coefficient increased more than 10-fold using the niosomal gels compared with those of conventional gels. In conclusion, a new niosomal gel formulation could serve as an effective alternative for the commercially available form of DOX.

Advances in Nanomedicine for Precision Insulin Delivery

Diabetes mellitus, which comprises a group of metabolic disorders affecting carbohydrate metabolism, is characterized by improper glucose utilization and excessive production, leading to hyperglycemia. The global prevalence of diabetes is rising, with projections indicating it will affect 783.2 million people by 2045. Insulin treatment is crucial, especially for type 1 diabetes, due to the lack of β-cell function. Intensive insulin therapy, involving multiple daily injections or continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, has proven effective in reducing microvascular complications but poses a higher risk of severe hypoglycemia. Recent advancements in insulin formulations and delivery methods, such as ultra-rapid-acting analogs and inhaled insulin, offer potential benefits in terms of reducing hypoglycemia and improving glycemic control. However, the traditional subcutaneous injection method has drawbacks, including patient compliance issues and associated complications. Nanomedicine presents innovative solutions to these challenges, offering promising avenues for overcoming current drug limitations, enhancing cellular uptake, and improving pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Various nanocarriers, including liposomes, chitosan, and PLGA, provide protection against enzymatic degradation, improving drug stability and controlled release. These nanocarriers offer unique advantages, ranging from enhanced bioavailability and sustained release to specific targeting capabilities. While oral insulin delivery is being explored for better patient adherence and cost-effectiveness, other nanomedicine-based methods also show promise in improving delivery efficiency and patient outcomes. Safety concerns, including potential toxicity and immunogenicity issues, must be addressed, with the FDA providing guidance for the safe development of nanotechnology-based products. Future directions in nanomedicine will focus on creating next-generation nanocarriers with precise targeting, real-time monitoring, and stimuli-responsive features to optimize diabetes treatment outcomes and patient safety. This review delves into the current state of nanomedicine for insulin delivery, examining various types of nanocarriers and their mechanisms of action, and discussing the challenges and future directions in developing safe and effective nanomedicine-based therapies for diabetes management.

Niosomes loading N-acetyl-L-cysteine for cancer treatment in vivo study

Scientists are seeking to find an effective treatment for tumors that has no side effects. N-Acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) is a thiol compound extracted from garlic. Current study explores the potential of NAC-loaded niosomes (NAC-NIO) for tumor treatment in mice. NAC-loaded niosomes' efficiency, morphology, UV absorption, size distribution, zeta potential, release, and FTIR analysis were evaluated. For vivo study, 25 male BALB/c mice were divided to five groups: gp1 negative control (receive saline), gp2 positive control (tumor group), gp3 treated with NAC, gp4 treated with NAC-NIO at the same time of tumor injection, and gp5 treated with NAC-NIO after tumor growth (day 14). The impact of NAC-NIO on the tumor treatment was evaluated by measuring tumor size progress, comet assay, oxidative stress parameters (GSH, nitric oxide, MDA), western blot analysis, and histopathological investigation of tissues. NAC-NIO showed 72 ± 3% encapsulation efficiency and zeta potential - 5.95 mV with spherical shape. It was found that oral administration of NAC-NIO in a dose of 50 mg/kg provided significant protection against tumor cells. Our formulation decreases DNA injury significantly (P < 0.05). It was noticed that NAC-NIO can increase oxidative stress levels in tumor tissue. On the other hand, the caspase 3 and caspase 9 gene expression were upregulated significantly (P < 0.001) in mice administrated NAC-NIO compared with all other groups. Histological studies confirmed the protective effect of NAC-NIO against tumor especially for treatment during tumor growth protocol. The results suggested that oral delivery of NAC-NIO formulation improved antioxidant effect.

Repro-protective activity of amygdalin and spirulina platensis in niosomes and conventional forms against aluminum chloride-induced testicular challenge in adult rats: role of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3B expressions

The male reproductive system is negatively influenced by Al exposure. Al represented a considerable hazard to men's reproduction capabilities. Amygdalin (AMG) and spirulina platensis (SP) have been considered to have a strong antioxidant and repro-protective activity; also, targeted drug delivery systems called niosomes improve the distribution of water-soluble medications like amygdalin and spirulina. Current study targeted to determine the effectiveness of AMG and SP against negative reproductive impact resulted by aluminum chloride (AlCl3) toxicity. Sixty adult male albino rats were separated into 6 groups, including the control group, which received distilled water; AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3; AMG+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+AMG; AMGLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+amygdalin-loaded niosomes; SP+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+SP; and SPLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+spirulina-loaded niosomes. All treatments were orally gavaged daily for 5 weeks, and rats were weighed weekly. At the termination of the experiment, some males (three from each group) were used for fertility traits via mating thirty virgin rat females (in a ratio of 1:2 and 2:3 male:female, respectively) followed by recording of birth weights and litter size (number of pups per each female) at birth to assess males' reproductive capability. Other males were euthanized for collection of serum, epididymal semen samples, and tissue samples for biochemical, sperm evaluation, gene expression, and histopathological measurements. There are a considerable number of negative impacts of AlCl3 on male fertility clarified by declined serum testosterone levels; an increased oxidative stress (MDA, TAC); deteriorated semen quality; down-regulation of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and testicular tissue degenerative changes. In addition, litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females were affected. AMG and SP treatments, either in niosomal or conventional form, alleviated the AlCl3 negative effects by reducing oxidative stress; increasing testosterone levels; improving semen quality; upregulating of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and reducing degenerative changes of testicular tissue. Besides, negative reproductive effect was diminished as observed by changes in the litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females. AMG and SP treatments (either in niosomal or conventional form), ameliorated the AlCl3 negative effects as they possess powerful antioxidant activity, as well as they have the ability to improve the reproductive activity of affected males.

Bee Venom-Loaded Niosomes as Innovative Platforms for Cancer Treatment: Development and Therapeutical Efficacy and Safety Evaluation

Despite past efforts towards therapeutical innovation, cancer remains a highly incident and lethal disease, with current treatments lacking efficiency and leading to severe side effects. Hence, it is imperative to develop new, more efficient, and safer therapies. Bee venom has proven to have multiple and synergistic bioactivities, including antitumor effects. Nevertheless, some toxic effects have been associated with its administration. To tackle these issues, in this work, bee venom-loaded niosomes were developed, for cancer treatment. The vesicles had a small (150 nm) and homogeneous (polydispersity index of 0.162) particle size, and revealed good therapeutic efficacy in in vitro gastric, colorectal, breast, lung, and cervical cancer models (inhibitory concentrations between 12.37 ng/mL and 14.72 ng/mL). Additionally, they also revealed substantial anti-inflammatory activity (inhibitory concentration of 28.98 ng/mL), effects complementary to direct antitumor activity. Niosome safety was also assessed, both in vitro (skin, liver, and kidney cells) and ex vivo (hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane), and results showed that compound encapsulation increased its safety. Hence, small, and homogeneous bee venom-loaded niosomes were successfully developed, with substantial anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects, making them potentially promising primary or adjuvant cancer therapies. Future research should focus on evaluating the potential of the developed platform in in vivo models.

Preparation, characterization, and ex-vivo evaluation of curcumin-loaded niosomal nanoparticles on the equine sperm quality during cooled storage

Oxidative damage to sperm during cooled storage is a significant issue, and curcumin, with its antioxidant properties, could be a solution. However, its low bioavailability presents a challenge that this study aims to address. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the potential of curcumin-loaded niosomal nanoparticles (Cur-LNN) to enhance the antioxidant properties of curcumin and its effect on sperm quality during 72 h cooled storage. The thin-film hydration procedure was applied to prepare Cur-LNN. The fabricated noisomal nanocarriers were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Moreover, the encapsulation and loading efficiency, in vitro release study, and ex-vivo antioxidant functionality of Cur-LNN on the stallion sperm preserved under cooled storage conditions were assessed. The fabricated Cur-LNN was spherical in shape and had an average particle size of 163.1 ± 1.8 nm, a zeta potential of -34.1 ± 1.9 mV, a poly-dispersity index of 0.339 ± 0.045, an encapsulation efficiency of 92.34 ± 0.18 %, and a loading efficiency of 35.57 ± 1.36 %. Ex-vivo evaluation revealed that supplementation of the semen extender with Cur-LNN has the potential to enhance sperm quality by improving total and progressive motility, plasma membrane functionality, and lipid peroxidation. These results demonstrate that Cur-LNN exhibited stronger antioxidant and protective effects than curcumin. Although further in vivo investigations are warranted, our ex-vivo results suggest that Cur-LNN has the potential to attenuate oxidative damage and can be used to fortify the antioxidant capacity of equine semen under cooled storage conditions.

Formulation, pharmacokinetics, and antibacterial activity of florfenicol-loaded niosome

The growing interest in employing nano-sized pharmaceutical formulations in veterinary medicine has prompted the exploration of the novel nanocarriers' ability to augment the therapeutic outcome. In this study, we harnessed niosomes, spherical nanocarriers formed through non-ionic surfactant self-assembly, to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the broad-spectrum antibiotic florfenicol. Pre-formulation studies were conducted to identify the optimal parameters for preparing florfenicol-loaded niosomes (FLNs). These studies revealed that the formulation that consisted of Span 60, cholesterol, and dihexadecyl phosphate (DDP) at a molar ratio of 1:1:0.1 exhibited the highest entrapment efficiency (%EE) and uniform size distribution. In vitro antibacterial testing demonstrated the niosomal capacity to significantly reduce florfenicol minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against E. coli and S. aureus. Pharmacokinetic profiles of free florfenicol and FLN were assessed following oral administration of 30 mg florfenicol/kg body weight to healthy or E. coli-infected chickens. FLN exhibited a substantially higher maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of florfenicol compared to free florfenicol. Furthermore, FLN showed significantly higher area under the curve (AUC0-t) than free florfenicol as revealed from the relative bioavailability studies. Lethal dose (LD) 50 values for both free florfenicol and FLN exceeded 5 g/kg of body weight, indicating high safety profile. Assessment of mortality protection in mice against lethal E. coli infections showed the significantly higher capability of FLN to improve the survival rate (75%) than free florfenicol (25%). Collectively, these findings demonstrate the niosomal ability to improve the oral bioavailability as well as the antibacterial activity of the incorporated veterinary antibiotic florfenicol.

Nose to brain delivery of naringin loaded transniosomes for epilepsy: formulation, characterisation, blood-brain distribution and invivo pharmacodynamic evaluation

The current work limns the preparation of naringin-loaded transnioosomes (NRN-TN) to enhance NRN solubility, permeation and bioavailability via nasal mucosa for intranasal delivery. NRN-TN was created by the thin-film hydration technique, and with the BBD (Box-Behnken design), optimisation was carried out. NRN-TNopt was characterised for the vesicle size, PDI (Polydispersity index), zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE) and in vitro NRN release. For further assessment, nasal permeation study, study of Blood-brain distribution, TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy), and CLSM (Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy) were conducted withal. The NRN-TNopt exhibited spherical as well as sealed vesicles with a considerable small size of 151.3 nm, an EE of 75.23 percent, a PDI of 0.1257, and an in vitro release of 83.32 percent. CLSM investigation revealed that the new formulation allows for higher NRN permeation across nasal mucosa than the NRN solution. The blood-brain distribution investigation revealed that intranasally administered NRN-TN had a greater Cmax and AUC0-24 h than orally administered NRN-TN. Seizure activity and neuromuscular coordination as measured by the rotarod test, biochemical estimate of oxidative stress indicators, and histological investigations demonstrated that the NRN-TN has superior anti-epileptic potential in comparison to the standard diazepam. In addition, nasal toxicity studies demonstrate that the NRN-TN formulation is safer for intranasal administration. This study confirmed that the created TN vesicle formulation is a valuable carrier for the intranasal administration of NRN for the treatment of epilepsy.

Highly in vitro anti-cancer activity of melittin-loaded niosomes on non-small cell lung cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Development of promising medicines from natural sources, specially venom, is of highly necessitated to combat against life-threatening cancers. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has a significant percentage of mortalities. Melittin, from bee venom, is a potent anticancer peptide but its toxicity has limited its therapeutic applications. Accordingly, this study aims to synthesize niosomes with suitable stability and capacity for carrying melittin as a drug. Additionally, it seeks to evaluate the anti-cancer activity of melittin-loaded niosomes on non-small cell lung cancer.

METHODS

The niosome was prepared by thin film hydration method. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis were assessed on A549, Calu-3, and MRC5 cells. Real-time PCR was used to determine expression of apoptotic and pro-apoptotic Bax, Bcl2, and Casp3 genes. Immunocytochemistry (ICC) was also used to confirm expression of the abovementioned genes. Furthermore, wound healing assay was performed to compare inhibition effects of melittin-loaded niosomes with free melittin on migration of cancer cells.

RESULTS

IC50 values of melittin-loaded niosomes for A549, Calu-3, and MRC5 cells were respectively 0.69 μg/mL, 1.02 μg/mL, and 2.56 μg/mL after 72 h. Expression level of Bax and Casp3 increased '10 and 8' and '9 and 10.5' fold in A549 and Calu-3, whereas Bcl2 gene expression decreased 0.19 and 0.18 fold in the mentioned cell lines. The cell migration inhibited by melittin-loaded niosomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Melittin-loaded niosomes had more anti-cancer effects and less toxicity on normal cells than free melittin. Furthermore, it induced apoptosis and inhibited cancer cells migration. Our results showed that melittin-loaded niosomes may be a drug lead and it has the potential to be future developed for lung cancer treatment.

Integrating Nanotechnological Advancements of Disease-Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs into Rheumatoid Arthritis Management

Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is a class of anti-rheumatic medicines that are frequently prescribed to patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methotrexate, sulfasalazine, hydroxychloroquine, and azathioprine are examples of non-biologic DMARDs that are being used for alleviating pain and preventing disease progression. Biologic DMARDs (bDMARDs) like infliximab, rituximab, etanercept, adalimumab, tocilizumab, certolizumab pegol, and abatacept have greater effectiveness with fewer adverse effects in comparison to non-biologic DMARDs. This review article delineates the classification of DMARDs and their characteristic attributes. The poor aqueous solubility or permeability causes the limited oral bioavailability of synthetic DMARDs, while the high molecular weights along with the bulky structures of bDMARDs have posed few obstacles in their drug delivery and need to be addressed through the development of nanoformulations like cubosomes, nanospheres, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanomicelles, liposome, niosomes, and nanostructured lipid carrier. The main focus of this review article is to highlight the potential role of nanotechnology in the drug delivery of DMARDs for increasing solubility, dissolution, and bioavailability for the improved management of RA. This article also focusses on the different aspects of nanoparticles like their applications in biologics, biocompatibility, body clearance, scalability, drug loading, and stability issues.

Composition, preparation methods, and applications of nanoniosomes as codelivery systems: a review of emerging therapies with emphasis on cancer

Nanoniosome-based drug codelivery systems have become popular therapeutic instruments, demonstrating tremendous promise in cancer therapy, infection treatment, and other therapeutic domains. An emerging form of vesicular nanocarriers, niosomes are self-assembling vesicles composed of nonionic surfactants, along with cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. This comprehensive review focuses on how nanosystems may aid in making anticancer and antibacterial pharmaceuticals more stable and soluble. As malleable nanodelivery instruments, the composition, types, preparation procedures, and variables affecting the structure and stability of niosomes are extensively investigated. In addition, the advantages of dual niosomes for combination therapy and the administration of multiple medications simultaneously are highlighted. Along with categorizing niosomal drug delivery systems, a comprehensive analysis of various preparation techniques, including thin-layer injection, ether injection, and microfluidization, is provided. Dual niosomes for cancer treatment are discussed in detail regarding the codelivery of two medications and the codelivery of a drug with organic, plant-based bioactive compounds or gene agents. In addition, niogelosomes and metallic niosomal carriers for targeted distribution are discussed. The review also investigates the simultaneous delivery of bioactive substances and gene agents, including siRNA, microRNA, shRNA, lncRNA, and DNA. Additional sections discuss the use of dual niosomes for cutaneous drug delivery and treating leishmanial infections, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The study concludes by delineating the challenges and potential routes for nanoniosome-based pharmaceutical codelivery systems, which will be useful for nanomedicine practitioners and researchers.

Niosome as a promising tool for increasing the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory compounds

Niosomes are drug delivery systems with widespread applications in pharmaceutical research and the cosmetic industry. Niosomes are vesicles of one or more bilayers made of non-ionic surfactants, cholesterol, and charge inducers. Because of their bilayer characteristics, similar to liposomes, niosomes can be loaded with lipophilic and hydrophilic cargos. Therefore, they are more stable and cheaper in preparation than liposomes. They can be classified into four categories according to their sizes and structures, namely small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs,), multilamellar vesicles (MLVs), and multivesicular vesicles (MVVs). There are many methods for niosome preparation, such as thin-film hydration, solvent injection, and heating method. The current study focuses on the preparation methods and pharmacological effects of niosomes loaded with natural and chemical anti-inflammatory compounds in kinds of literature during the past decade. We found that most research was carried out to load anti-inflammatory agents like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) into niosome vesicles. The studies revealed that niosomes could improve anti-inflammatory agents' physicochemical properties, including solubility, cellular uptake, stability, encapsulation, drug release and liberation, efficiency, and oral bioavailability or topical absorption. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Essential oils and their nanoformulations for breast cancer therapy

Breast Cancer (BC) is the most prevalent type of cancer in the world. Current treatments include surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy but often are associated with high toxicity to normal tissues, chemoresistance, and relapse. Thus, developing novel therapies which could combat these limitations is essential for effective treatment. In this context, phytochemicals are increasingly getting popular due to their safety profile, ability to efficiently target tumors, and circumvent limitations of existing treatments. Essential Oils (EOs) are mixtures of various phytochemicals which have shown potential anticancer activity in preclinical BC models. However, their clinical translation is limited by factors such as high volatility, low stability, and poor solubility. Nanotechnology has facilitated their encapsulation in a variety of nanostructures and proven to overcome these limitations. In this review, we have efficiently summarized the current knowledge on the anticancer effect of EOs and constituents in both in in vitro and in in vivo BC models. Further, we also provide a descriptive account on the potential of nanotechnology in enhancing the anti-BC activity of EOs and their constituents. The papers discussed in this review were selected using the keywords "antiproliferative Essential Oils in breast cancer," "anticancer activity of Essential Oil in breast cancer," and "cytotoxicity of Essential Oils in breast cancer" performed in PubMed and ScienceDirect databases.

Therapeutic strategy of biological macromolecules based natural bioactive compounds of diabetes mellitus and future perspectives: A systematic review

High blood glucose levels are a hallmark of the metabolic syndrome known as diabetes mellitus. More than 600 million people will have diabetes by 2045 as the global prevalence of the disease continues to rise. Contemporary antidiabetic drugs reduce hyperglycemia and its consequences. However, these drugs come with undesirable side effects, so it's encouraging that research into plant extracts and bioactive substances with antidiabetic characteristics is on the rise. Natural remedies are preferable to conventional anti-diabetic drugs since they are safer for the body, more affordable and have fewer potential adverse effects. Biological macromolecules such as liposomes, niosomes, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions and metallic nanoparticles are explored in this review. Current drug restrictions have been addressed, and the effectiveness of plant-based antidiabetic therapies has enhanced the merits of these methods. Plant extracts' loading capacity and the carriers' stability are the primary obstacles in developing plant-based nanocarriers. Hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic drugs are covered, and a brief overview of the amphipathic features of liposomes, phospholipids, and lipid nanocarriers is provided. Metallic nanoparticles' benefits and attendant risks are highlighted to emphasize their efficiency in treating hyperglycemia. Researchers interested in the potential of nanoparticles loaded with plant extracts as antidiabetic therapeutics may find the current helpful review.

Impact of umbelliprenin-containing niosome nanoparticles on VEGF-A and CTGF genes expression in retinal pigment epithelium cells

AIM

To investigate the impact of niosome nanoparticles carrying umbelliprenin (UMB), an anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory plant compound, on the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) genes in a human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)-like retina-derived cell line.

METHODS

UMB-containing niosomes were created, optimized, and characterized. RPE-like cells were treated with free UMB and UMB-containing niosomes. The IC50 values of the treatments were determined using an MTT assay. Gene expression of VEGF-A and CTGF was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction after RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis. Niosomes' characteristics, including drug entrapment efficiency, size, dispersion index, and zeta potential were assessed. Free UMB had an IC50 of 96.2 µg/mL, while UMB-containing niosomes had an IC50 of 25 µg/mL.

RESULTS

Treatment with UMB-containing niosomes and free UMB resulted in a significant reduction in VEGF-A expression compared to control cells (P=0.001). Additionally, UMB-containing niosomes demonstrated a significant reduction in CTGF expression compared to control cells (P=0.05). However, there was no significant reduction in the expression of both genes in cells treated with free UMB.

CONCLUSION

Both free UMB and niosome-encapsulated UMB inhibits VEGF-A and CTGF genes expression. However, the latter demonstrates significantly greater efficacy, potentially due to the lower UMB dosage and gradual delivery. These findings have implications for anti-angiogenesis therapeutic approaches targeting age-related macular degeneration.

pH-sensitive niosomes for ATRA delivery: A promising approach to inhibit Pin1 in high-grade serous ovarian cancer

The peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase Pin1 positively regulates numerous cancer-driving pathways, and it is overexpressed in several malignancies, including high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC). The findings that all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) induces Pin1 degradation strongly support that ATRA treatment might be a promising approach for HGSOC targeted therapy. Nevertheless, repurposing ATRA into the clinics for the treatment of solid tumors remains an unmet need mainly due to the insurgence of resistance and its ineffective delivery. In the present study, niosomes have been employed for improving ATRA delivery in HGSOC cell lines. Characterization of niosomes including hydrodynamic diameter, ζ-potential, morphology, entrapment efficiency and stability over time and in culture media was performed. Furthermore, pH-sensitiveness and ATRA release profile were investigated to demonstrate the capability of these vesicles to release ATRA in a stimuli-responsive manner. Obtained results documented a nanometric and monodispersed samples with negative ζ-potential. ATRA was efficiently entrapped, and a substantial release was observed in the presence of acidic pH (pH 5.5). Finally, unloaded niosomes showed good biocompatibility while ATRA-loaded niosomes significantly increased ATRA Pin1 inhibitory activity, which was consistent with cell growth inhibition. Taken together, ATRA-loaded niosomes might represent an appealing therapeutic strategy for HGSOC therapy.

A Comprehensive Review on Niosomes as a Tool for Advanced Drug Delivery

Over the past few decades, advancements in nanocarrier-based therapeutic delivery have been significant, and niosomes research has recently received much interest. The self-assembled nonionic surfactant vesicles lead to the production of niosomes. The most recent nanocarriers, niosomes, are self-assembled vesicles made of nonionic surfactants with or without the proper quantities of cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. Because of their durability, low cost of components, largescale production, simple maintenance, and high entrapment efficiency, niosomes are being used more frequently. Additionally, they enhance pharmacokinetics, reduce toxicity, enhance the solubility of poorly water-soluble compounds, & increase bioavailability. One of the most crucial features of niosomes is their controlled release and targeted diffusion, which is utilized for treating cancer, infectious diseases, and other problems. In this review article, we have covered all the fundamental information about niosomes, including preparation techniques, niosomes types, factors influencing their formation, niosomes evaluation, applications, and administration routes, along with recent developments.

Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-based Approaches to Atopic Dermatitis and Emerging Trends in Drug Development and Design

Atopic dermatitis (AD), commonly known as Eczema, is a non-communicable skin condition that tends to become chronic. The deteriorating immunological abnormalities are marked by mild to severe erythema, severe itching, and recurrent eczematous lesions. Different pharmacological approaches are used to treat AD. The problem with commercial topical preparations lies in the limitation of skin atrophy, systemic side effects, and burning sensation that decreases patient compliance. The carrier-based system promises to eliminate these shortcomings; thus, a novel approach to treating AD is required. Liposomes, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanoemulsions, etc., have been developed recently to address this ailment. Despite extensive research in the development method and various techniques, it has been challenging to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of these carrier- based systems, which illustrates a gap among the different research areas. Further, different soft wares and other tools have proliferated among biochemists as part of a cooperative approach to drug discovery. It is crucial in designing, developing, and analyzing processes in the pharmaceutical industry and is widely used to reduce costs, accelerate the development of biologically innovative active ingredients, and shorten the development time. This review sheds light on the compilation of extensive efforts to combat this disease, the product development processes, commercial products along with patents in this regard, numerous options for each step of computer-aided drug design, including in silico pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity screening or predictions that are important in finding the drug-like compounds.

Non-Invasive Delivery of Insulin for Breaching Hindrances against Diabetes

Insulin is recognized as a crucial weapon in managing diabetes. Subcutaneous (s.c.) injections are the traditional approach for insulin administration, which usually have many limitations. Numerous alternative (non-invasive) slants through different routes have been explored by the researchers for making needle-free delivery of insulin for attaining its augmented absorption as well as bioavailability. The current review delineating numerous pros and cons of several novel approaches of non-invasive insulin delivery by overcoming many of their hurdles. Primary information on the topic was gathered by searching scholarly articles from PubMed added with extraction of data from auxiliary manuscripts. Many approaches (discussed in the article) are meant for the delivery of a safe, effective, stable, and patient friendly administration of insulin via buccal, oral, inhalational, transdermal, intranasal, ocular, vaginal and rectal routes. Few of them have proven their clinical efficacy for maintaining the glycemic levels, whereas others are under the investigational pipe line. The developed products are comprising of many advanced micro/nano composite technologies and few of them might be entering into the market in near future, thereby garnishing the hopes of millions of diabetics who are under the network of s.c. insulin injections.

Applications of Nanotechnology-mediated Herbal Nanosystems for Ophthalmic Drug

In recent years, herbal nanomedicines have gained tremendous popularity for novel drug discovery. Nanotechnology has provided several advances in the healthcare sector, emerging several novel nanocarriers that potentiate the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of the herbal drug. The recent advances in nanotechnology with accelerated strategies of ophthalmic nanosystems have paved a new path for overcoming the limitations associated with ocular drug delivery systems, such as low bioavailability, poor absorption, stability, and precorneal drug loss. Ophthalmic drug delivery is challenging due to anatomical and physiological barriers. Due to the presence of these barriers, the herbal drug entry into the eyes can be affected when administered by following multiple routes, i.e., topical, injectables, or systemic. However, the advancement of nanotechnology with intelligent systems enables the herbal active constituent to successfully entrap within the system, which is usually difficult to reach employing conventional herbal formulations. Herbal-loaded nanocarrier drug delivery systems demonstrated enhanced herbal drug permeation and prolonged herbal drug delivery. In this current manuscript, an extensive search is conducted for original research papers using databases Viz., PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of Science, etc. Further painstaking efforts are made to compile and update the novel herbal nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructure lipid carriers, micelles, niosomes, nanoemulsions, dendrimers, etc., which are mostly used for ophthalmic drug delivery system. This article presents a comprehensive survey of diverse applications used for the preventative measures and treatment therapy of varied eye disorders. Further, this article highlights the recent findings that the innovators are exclusively working on ophthalmic nanosystems for herbal drug delivery systems. The nanocarriers are promising drug delivery systems that enable an effective and supreme therapeutic potential circumventing the limitations associated with conventional ocular drug delivery systems. The nanotechnology-based approach is useful to encapsulate the herbal bioactive and prevent them from degradation and therefore providing them for controlled and sustained release with enhanced herbal drug permeation. Extensive research is still being carried out in the field of herbal nanotechnology to design an ophthalmic nanosystem with improved biopharmaceutical properties.

Novel nasal niosomes loaded with lacosamide and coated with chitosan: A possible pathway to target the brain to control partial-onset seizures

This work aimed to develop and produce lacosamide-loaded niosomes coated with chitosan (LCA-CTS-NSM) using a thin-film hydration method and the Box-Behnken design. The effect of three independent factors (Span 60 amount, chitosan concentration, and cholesterol amount) on vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, zeta potential, and cumulative release (8 h) was studied. The optimal formulation of LCA-CTS-NSM was chosen from the design space and assessed for morphology, in vitro release, nasal diffusion, stability, tolerability, and in vivo biodistribution for brain targeting after intranasal delivery. The vesicle size, entrapment, surface charge, and in vitro release of the optimal formula were found to be 194.3 nm, 58.3%, +35.6 mV, and 81.3%, respectively. Besides, it exhibits sustained release behavior, enhanced nasal diffusion, and improved physical stability. Histopathological testing revealed no evidence of toxicity or structural damage to the nasal mucosa. It demonstrated significantly more brain distribution than the drug solution. Overall, the data is encouraging since it points to the potential for non-invasive intranasal administration of LCA as an alternative to oral or parenteral routes.

The Utilization of Plant-Material-Loaded Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems in the Management of Pulmonary Diseases

Medicinal plants have been utilized to treat a variety of conditions on account of the bioactive properties that they contain. Most bioactive constituents from plants are of limited effectiveness, due to poor solubility, limited permeability, first-pass metabolism, efflux transporters, chemical instability, and food-drug interactions However, when combined with vesicular drug delivery systems (VDDS), herbal medicines can be delivered at a predetermined rate and can exhibit site-specific action. Vesicular drug delivery systems are novel pharmaceutical formulations that make use of vesicles as a means of encapsulating and transporting drugs to various locations within the body; they are a cutting-edge method of medication delivery that combats the drawbacks of conventional drug delivery methods. Drug delivery systems offer promising strategies to overcome the bioavailability limitations of bioactive phytochemicals. By improving their solubility, protecting them from degradation, enabling targeted delivery, and facilitating controlled release, drug delivery systems can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of phytochemicals and unlock their full potential in various health conditions. This review explores and collates the application of plant-based VDDS with the potential to exhibit protective effects against lung function loss in the interest of innovative and effective treatment and management of respiratory illnesses.

Recent Developments in Gene Therapy for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Review

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex and multifactorial disease and a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly population. The anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy has revolutionized the management and prognosis of neovascular AMD (nAMD) and is currently the standard of care for this disease. However, patients are required to receive repeated injections, imposing substantial social and economic burdens. The implementation of gene therapy methods to achieve sustained delivery of various therapeutic proteins holds the promise of a single treatment that could ameliorate the treatment challenges associated with chronic intravitreal therapy, and potentially improve visual outcomes. Several early-phase trials are currently underway, evaluating the safety and efficacy of gene therapy for nAMD; however, areas of controversy persist, including the therapeutic target, route of administration, and potential safety issues. In this review, we assess the evolution of gene therapy for nAMD and summarize several preclinical and early-stage clinical trials, exploring challenges and future directions.

Span 60/Cholesterol Niosomal Formulation as a Suitable Vehicle for Gallic Acid Delivery with Potent In Vitro Antibacterial, Antimelanoma, and Anti-Tyrosinase Activity

Natural compounds such as gallic acid (GA) have attracted more attention in cosmetic and pharmaceutical skin care products. However, the low solubility and poor stability of GA have limited its application. This study aimed to synthesize and characterize the GA niosomal dispersion (GAN) and investigate the potential of an optimal formulation as a skin drug delivery system for GA. For this purpose, GAN formulations were synthesized using the thin layer evaporation method with different molar ratios of Tween 60/Span 60, along with a constant molar ratio of polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG-4000) and cholesterol in a methanol and chloroform solvent (1:4 v/v). The physicochemical properties of nanosystems in terms of size, zeta potential, drug entrapment, drug release, morphology, and system-drug interaction were characterized using different methods. In addition, in vitro cytotoxicity, anti-tyrosinase activity, and antibacterial activity were evaluated by MTT assay, the spectrophotometric method, and micro-well dilution assay. All formulations revealed a size of 80-276 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) values below 0.35, and zeta potential values below-9.7 mV. F2 was selected as the optimal formulation due to its smaller size and high stability. The optimal formulation of GAN (F2) was as follows: a 1:1 molar ratio of Span 60 to cholesterol and 1.5 mM GA. The release of the F2 drug showed a biphasic pattern, which was fast in the first 12 h until 58% was released. Our results showed the high antibacterial activity of GAN against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The MTT assay showed that GA encapsulation increased its effect on B6F10 cancer cells. The F2 formulation exhibited potent anti-tyrosinase activity and inhibited melanin synthesis. These findings suggest that it can be used in dermatological skin care products in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries due to its significant antibacterial, anti-melanoma, and anti-tyrosinase activity.

Preparation of astaxanthin/zeaxanthin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers for enhanced bioavailability: Characterization-, stability-and permeability study

Astaxanthin (ASTA) and zeaxanthin (ZEA) are xanthophyll carotenoids showing a wide spectrum of health-promoting properties. However, their utilization is limited, mostly due to poor water solubility, limited bioavailability, and a tendency to oxidate, as well as photo- and thermal instability. The aim of this work was to develop ASTA- and ZEA-loaded nano-structured lipid carriers (NLCs) that would protect them against degradation and improve their intestinal stability/permeability. Obtained NLCs were characterized by an effective diameter of 294 nm for ASTA-NLC and 280 nm for ZEA-NLC; polydispersity index (PDI) lower than 0.2; and zeta potential of -29.4 mV and -29.0 mV, respectively. Interestingly, despite similar physicochemical characteristics, our investigation revealed differences in the encapsulation efficiency of ASTA-NLC and ZEA-NLC (58.0 % vs. 75.5 %, respectively). Obtained NLCs were stable during a 21 day-storage period in the dark at room temperature or at 4 °C. Investigation of gastrointestinal stability showed no change in effective diameter and PDI under gastric conditions while both parameters significantly changed under intestinal conditions. Our results showed for the first time that both ASTA- and ZEA-NLCs intestinal absorption investigated in the in vitro model is significantly increased (in relation to pure compounds) and is affected by the presence of mucus. This study provides useful data about the advantages of using NLC as a delivery system for ASTA and ZEA that might facilitate their applications in the food and pharmaceutical industry.

Fabrication, optimization, and characterization of pH-responsive PEGylated nanoniosomes containing gingerol for enhanced treatment of breast cancer

Multiple potential drug delivery strategies have emerged as a result of recent advances in nanotechnology and nanomedicine. The aim of this research was to prepare an optimized system of PEGylated gingerol-loaded niosomes (Nio-Gin@PEG) as an excellent candidate for the treatment of human breast cancer cells. The preparation procedure was modified by adjusting the drug concentration, lipid content, and Span60/Tween60 ratio, resulting in high encapsulation efficacy (EE%), rapid release rate, and reduced size. The Nio-Gin@PEG exhibited significantly improved storage stability compared to the gingerol-loaded niosomes formulation (Nio-Gin), with minimal changes in EE%, release profile, and size during storage. Furthermore, Nio-Gin@PEG demonstrated pH-dependent release behavior, with delayed drug diffusion at physiological pH and significant drug diffusion under acidic conditions (pH = 5.4), making it a promising option for cancer treatment. Cytotoxicity tests indicated that Nio-Gin@PEG possessed excellent biocompatibility with human fibroblast cells while exerting a remarkable inhibitory effect on MCF-7 and SKBR3 breast cancer cells, attributed to the presence of gingerol and the PEGylated structure in the preparation. Nio-Gin@PEG also exhibited the ability to modulate the expression of target genes. We observed statistically significant down-regulation of the expression of BCL2, MMP2, MMP9, HER2, CCND1, CCNE1, BCL2, CDK4, and VEGF genes, along with up-regulation of the expression of BAX, CASP9, CASP3, and P21 genes. Flow cytometry results revealed that Nio-Gin@PEG could induce a higher rate of apoptosis in both cancerous cells compared to gingerol and Nio-Gin, owing to the optimal encapsulation and efficient drug release from the formulation, as confirmed by cell cycle tests. ROS generation demonstrated the superior antioxidant effect of Nio-Gin@PEG compared to other prepared formulations. The results of this study emphasize the potential of formulating highly biocompatible niosomes in the future of nanomedicine, enabling more precise and effective treatment of cancers.

Investigating the self-assembling of nicotinic hydrazide-based amphiphile into nano-range vesicles and its amphotericin B loading applications

Most of the drugs are hydrophobic and have low water solubility, therefore posing issues in their absorption and bioavailability. Nonionic surfactants improve the solubility of hydrophobic drugs by entrapping them in their lipid bilayers. Two nonionic surfactants NODNH-16 and NODNH-18 are synthesized and characterized using different techniques i.e. EI-MS, ¹H NMR, and FTIR. These newly synthesized surfactants were screened for blood hemolysis assay and cell toxicity studies using the NIH/3T3 cell line to assess their biocompatibility. Then amphotericin B was loaded into niosomal vesicles, and the drug entrapment efficiency of these surfactants was measured using UV-visible spectroscopy. The morphology of drug-loaded niosomes of synthesized surfactants was investigated using AFM, and their size, polydispersity, and zeta potential were measured with the Zetasizer instrument. Finally, a simulation study was performed to determine the pattern of self-assembly of the synthesized amphiphiles. Both synthesized nonionic surfactants showed good entrapment efficiency of 60.65 ± 2.12% and 68.45 ± 2.12%, respectively. It was also confirmed that both these synthesized nonionic surfactants were safe and biocompatible and showed less blood hemolysis (i.e. 21.13 ± 2.11% and 23.32 ± 2.45%) and higher 3T3 cells' viability at 150 µg/mL concentration as compared to Tween®-80. The antifungal potential of amphotericin B-loaded niosomes has been evaluated against unicellular multi-fungal species, which showed a promising potential for fungicidal activity. These results are substantiated by constructing a safe vehicle system for drug delivery.

Efficacy of ceftiofur N-acyl homoserine lactonase niosome in the treatment of multi-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in broilers

In this study, the efficiency of the ceftiofur N-acyl homoserine lactonase niosome against multi-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in broilers was evaluated. Fifty-six K. pneumoniae isolates previously recovered from different poultry and environmental samples were screened for the ahlK gene. The lactonase enzyme was extracted from eight quorum-quenching isolates. The niosome was formulated, characterized, and tested for minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and cytotoxicity. Fourteen-day-old chicks were assigned to six groups: groups Ӏ and П served as negative and positive controls, receiving saline and K. pneumoniae solutions, respectively. In groups Ш and IV, ceftiofur and niosome were administrated intramuscularly at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight for five consecutive days, while groups V and VI received the injections following the K. pneumoniae challenge. Signs, mortality, and gross lesions were recorded. Tracheal swabs were collected from groups П, V, and VI for counting K. pneumoniae. Pharmacokinetic parameters were evaluated in four treated groups at nine-time points. The niosome was spherical and 56.5 ± 4.41 nm in size. The viability of Vero cells was unaffected up to 5 × MIC (2.4 gml-1). The niosome-treated challenged group showed mild signs and lesions with lower mortality and colony count than the positive control group. The maximum ceftiofur serum concentrations in treated groups were observed 2 h following administration. The elimination half-life in niosome-treated groups was longer than that reported in ceftiofur-treated groups. This is the first report of the administration of N-acyl homoserine lactonase for the control of multi-resistant K. pneumoniae infections in poultry.

Quercetin as a Therapeutic Product: Evaluation of Its Pharmacological Action and Clinical Applications-A Review

Quercetin is the major polyphenolic flavonoid that belongs to the class called flavanols. It is found in many foods, such as green tea, cranberry, apple, onions, asparagus, radish leaves, buckwheat, blueberry, broccoli, and coriander. It occurs in many different forms, but the most abundant quercetin derivatives are glycosides and ethers, namely, Quercetin 3-O-glycoside, Quercetin 3-sulfate, Quercetin 3-glucuronide, and Quercetin 3'-metylether. Quercetin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antiviral, and antibacterial effects. It is found to be beneficial against cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, neuro-degenerative diseases, allergy asthma, peptic ulcers, osteoporosis, arthritis, and eye disorders. In pre-clinical and clinical investigations, its impacts on various signaling pathways and molecular targets have demonstrated favorable benefits for the activities mentioned above, and some global clinical trials have been conducted to validate its therapeutic profile. It is also utilized as a nutraceutical due to its pharmacological properties. Although quercetin has several pharmacological benefits, its clinical use is restricted due to its poor water solubility, substantial first-pass metabolism, and consequent low bioavailability. To circumvent this limited bioavailability, a quercetin-based nanoformulation has been considered in recent times as it manifests increased quercetin uptake by the epithelial system and enhances the delivery of quercetin to the target site. This review mainly focuses on pharmacological action, clinical trials, patents, marketed products, and approaches to improving the bioavailability of quercetin with the use of a nanoformulation.

Improving the Bioavailability and Efficacy of Coenzyme Q10 on Alzheimer's Disease Through the Arginine Based Proniosomes

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a fat-soluble vitamin-with a benzoquinone-like structure. CoQ10 plays a role in membrane stability, energy conversion, and ATP production. It is also one of the important antioxidants in the body. The bioavailability of exogenous CoQ10 is extremely low due to its poor aqueous solubility and large molecular mass. In this study, mixed proniosomal drug delivery systems have been used to increase solubility and bioavailability of CoQ10. Arginine (semi-essential amino acid) was incorporated in the formulation composition to achieve higher efficacy by boosting nitric oxide presence, endothelial dysfunction, and cellular uptake. Proniosomes were investigated in terms of particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and process yield, and optimization studies were carried on by utilizing STATISTICA 8.0 software considering dependent factors (carrier amount, drug amount, and surfactant ratio). Optimum proniosome formulation (particle size 187.5 ± 16.35 nm, zeta potential: -44.7 ± 12.8 mV, encapsulation efficiency 99.05±0.30%, and product yield: 90.55%) was evaluated for thermal analysis, in-vitro drug release using microcentrifuge method. In-vitro cytotoxicity studies of proniosomes were performed on intestinal Epithelial Cells (Cellartis®, ChiPSC18) and no cytotoxic effects was seen during the 72 h. Besides, anti Alzheimer effect was investigated on APPSL-GFP lentivirus-infected human neural cells (APPSL-GFP-l-HNC) and Alzheimer biomarkers (p-tau181 and p-tau217). While CoQ10's relative bioavailability was statistically increased by proniosome compared to CoQ10 suspension (p<0.01, Grubb test). PK parameters of proniosome formulation, obtained with non-compartmental modeling, were fitting to the data (R2=0.956±0.026). The study results proved that proniosomal formulation has a high potential drug delivery system for both increasing bioavailability and anti-Alzheimer effect of CoQ10.

Trends in Formulation Approaches for Sustained Drug Delivery to the Posterior Segment of the Eye

The eye, an intricate organ comprising physical and physiological barriers, poses a significant challenge for ophthalmic physicians seeking to treat serious ocular diseases affecting the posterior segment, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy (DR). Despite extensive efforts, the delivery of therapeutic drugs to the rear part of the eye remains an unresolved issue. This comprehensive review delves into conventional and innovative formulation strategies for drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye. By utilizing alternative nanoformulation approaches such as liposomes, nanoparticles, and microneedle patches, researchers and clinicians can overcome the limitations of conventional eye drops and achieve more effective drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye. These innovative strategies offer improved drug penetration, prolonged residence time, and controlled release, enhancing therapeutic outcomes for ocular diseases. Moreover, this article explores recently approved delivery systems that leverage diverse polymer technologies, such as chitosan and hyaluronic acid, to regulate drug-controlled release over an extended period. By offering a comprehensive understanding of the available formulation strategies, this review aims to empower researchers and clinicians in their pursuit of developing highly effective treatments for posterior-segment ocular diseases.

Niosomal Delivery of Celecoxib and Metformin for Targeted Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer continues to be a prominent worldwide health concern and requires continued investigation into innovative therapeutic approaches. Here, we report the first investigation into the therapeutic efficacy of combining Metformin (MET) and Celecoxib (CXB), both in free and niosomal form, for the treatment of breast cancer. Our investigation encompassed the characterization of these niosomal drug carriers, their stability assessment, and their effect on breast cancer cell models. The thin-film hydration technique was employed to prepare niosomes with spherical, uniform-size distributions and high encapsulation efficiencies. The niosomes were characterized by TEM, particle size analyzer, and ATR-FTIR. The niosomes with an average size of 110.6 ± 0.6 and 96.7 ± 0.7, respectively, for MET and CXB were stable when stored at 4 °C for three months with minimal drug leakage, minor changes in encapsulation efficiency and size, and unchanged physicochemical parameters. Evaluation in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) viability assays demonstrated an increased cytotoxicity of encapsulated drugs when compared to their free-drug counterparts. Additionally, the combination of Metformin Niosomal Particles (MET NPs) and Celecoxib Niosomal Particles (CXB NPs) led to decreased cell viability in both 2D and 3D models compared to each drug administered individually. When comparing the effect of the niosomal versus the free combination of the drugs on cell migration, we found that both interventions effectively prevented cell migration. However, the efficacy of the niosomes' combination was not superior to that of the free drug combination (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of this study provide valuable insights into the potential application of combining MET and CXB nanoparticle delivery systems to breast cancer treatment. Exploring the in vivo application of this drug delivery system could open new avenues for more effective and targeted therapeutic approaches for breast cancer patients.

Thiolated chitosan hydrogel-embedded niosomes: A promising crocin delivery system toward the management of aphthous stomatitis

Aphthous stomatitis is a common inflammatory oral disease with challenging management. Crocin is a natural carotenoid that has shown great anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to develop thiolated chitosan (TCS)-based hydrogels containing niosomes to serve as a mucoadhesive crocin delivery system for aphthous stomatitis. Crocin-loaded niosomes were prepared and the impact of surfactant type, cholesterol content, and lipid to drug ratio on the characteristics of niosomes was evaluated. TCS was synthesized and the success of thiolation was investigated. The optimum niosomal formulation was loaded into the hydrogel and the hybrid system was characterized regarding the morphology, mucoadhesive properties, viscosity, chemical structure, in vitro drug release, and in vivo efficacy. The optimized niosome formulation showed 77% crocin entrapment, a particle diameter of 59 nm, and a zeta potential of -18 mV. The niosome-containing hydrogel exhibited pseudoplastic rheological behavior, mucoadhesive properties, suitable swelling, and sustained release of crocin. In vivo study revealed that the niosome-containing hydrogel improved ulcer healing and decreased the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and p53 while increasing the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Collectively, TCS hydrogel-embedded crocin-loaded niosomes is a promising therapeutic option for aphthous stomatitis. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS STUDIED IN THIS ARTICLE: Crocin (PubChem CID: 5281233) Chitosan (PubChem CID: 71853) Thioglycolic acid (PubChem CID: 1133) 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (PubChem CID: 2723939) 5,5'-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (PubChem CID: 6254) Cholesterol (PubChem CID: 5997).

Dual-Targeted Therapy in HER2-Overexpressing Breast Cancer with Trastuzumab and Novel Cholesterol-Based Nioplexes Silencing Mcl-1

The challenge in HER2-overexpressing breast cancer therapy lies in creating an effective target therapy to overcome treatment resistance. Monoclonal antibodies and target gene silencing by siRNA are two potential strategies that have been widely developed for treating HER2-positive breast cancer. The siRNA delivery system is a crucial factor that influences siRNA therapy's success. In this study, lipid-based nanoparticles (cationic niosomes) composed of different cholesterol-based cationic lipids were formulated and characterized for delivering siRNA into HER2-overexpressing breast cancer cells. Niosomes containing a trimethylammonium headgroup showed the highest siRNA delivery efficiency with low toxicity. The myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) siRNA nioplex treatment significantly decreased mRNA expression and breast cancer cell growth. Dual-targeted therapy, consisting of treatment with an Mcl-1 siRNA nioplex and trastuzumab (TZ) solution, noticeably promoted cell-growth inhibition and apoptosis. The synergistic effect of dual therapy was also demonstrated by computer modeling software (CompuSyn version 1.0). These findings suggest that the developed cationic niosomes were effective nanocarriers for siRNA delivery in breast cancer cells. Furthermore, the Mcl-1 nioplex/TZ dual treatment establishes a synergistic outcome that may have the potential to treat HER2-overexpressing breast cancer.

Machine learning algorithms for prediction of entrapment efficiency in nanomaterials

Exploitation of machine learning in predicting performance of nanomaterials is a rapidly growing dynamic area of research. For instance, incorporation of therapeutic cargoes into nanovesicles (i.e., entrapment efficiency) is one of the critical parameters that ensures proper entrapment of drugs in the developed nanosystems. Several factors affect the entrapment efficiency of drugs and thus multiple assessments are required to ensure drug retention, and to reduce cost and time. Supervised machine learning can allow for the construction of algorithms that can mine data available from earlier studies to predict performance of specific types of nanoparticles. Comparative studies that utilize multiple regression algorithms to predict entrapment efficiency in nanomaterials are scarce. Herein, we report on a detailed methodology for prediction of entrapment efficiency in nanomaterials (e.g., niosomes) using different regression algorithms (i.e., CatBoost, linear regression, support vector regression and artificial neural network) to select the model that demonstrates the best performance for estimation of entrapment efficiency. The study concluded that CatBoost algorithm demonstrated the best performance with maximum R2 score (0.98) and mean square error (< 10-4). Among the various parameters that possess a role in entrapment efficiency of drugs into niosomes, the results obtained from CatBoost model revealed that the drug:lipid ratio is the major contributing factor affecting entrapment efficiency, followed by the lipid:surfactant molar ratio. Hence, supervised machine learning may be applied for future selection of the components of niosomes that achieve high entrapment efficiency of drugs while minimizing experimental procedures and cost.

Formulation, optimization and evaluation of amisulpride-loaded niosomal intranasal gel for brain targeting

Aim: To develop stable non-ionic surfactant vesicles containing amisulpride (AMS) to improve brain uptake via nose to brain mechanism. Methods: Niosomes were developed using a modified ethanol injection technique, optimized using 32 factorial design and evaluated for the vesicle size (VS), percent encapsulation efficiency (EE), zeta potential (ZP) and % cumulative drug release (%CDR). Results: Optimized niosomes (Span-60: cholesterol ratio 0:1) showed 191.4 nm VS, 84.25% EE, -38.2 ZP and 81.31% CDR. In situ gel with these niosomes displayed 78% CDR. TEM analysis revealed spherical niosomes. Pharmacokinetic and brain tissue distribution studies in rats showed enhanced plasma and brain concentrations, indicating successful brain targeting. Conclusion: This strategy demonstrates improved AMS permeation via the nasal cavity, enhancing bioavailability for treating schizophrenia.

The effect of α-tocopherol incorporated into different carriers on the oxidative stability of oil in water (O/W) emulsions

The effect of the antioxidant activity of α-tocopherol incorporated into different carriers on the oxidative stability of oil in water emulsion was investigated. The antioxidant activity of free and encapsulated α-tocopherol was measured in a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl reaction. Apart from α-tocopherol micelles, the samples showed similar antioxidant activity. The number of primary oxidation products in the emulsion with tocopherol liposomes and niosomes was lower than in the emulsion with micelles. During storage, the lipid peroxides gradually increased, whereas in emulsion with no α-tocopherol carriers added they remained constant. The content of the conjugated dienes first increased, and after 14 days at the end of testing time it remained stable in both types of emulsions. Our results might suggest that α-tocopherol when encapsulated into carriers exhibits lower antioxidant activity. The results obtained could be due to the better solubility of α-tocopherol in lipid droplets and thus the lower availability for the interfacial region, which is thought to be the place of the most pronounced lipid oxidation.

Emerging nanotechnology backed formulations for the management of atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis is a prevalent chronic skin inflammation affecting 2.1 to 4.1% of adults globally. The complexity of its pathogenesis and the relapsing nature make it challenging to treat. Current treatments follow European Academy of Dermatology and Venerology guidelines, but advanced cases with recurring lesions lack effective therapies. To address this gap, researchers are exploring nanotechnology for targeted drug delivery. Nanoparticles offer benefits such as improved drug retention, stability, controlled release and targeted delivery through the disrupted epidermal barrier. This integrated review evaluates the current state of AD treatment and highlights the potential of novel nano-formulations as a promising approach to address the disease.

Exploring Nanocarriers as Treatment Modalities for Skin Cancer

Cancer is a progressive disease of multi-factorial origin that has risen worldwide, probably due to changes in lifestyle, food intake, and environmental changes as some of the reasons. Skin cancer can be classified into melanomas from melanocytes and nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) from the epidermally-derived cell. Together it constitutes about 95% of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) are creditworthy of 99% of NMSC due to the limited accessibility of conventional formulations in skin cancer cells of having multiple obstacles in treatment reply to this therapeutic regime. Despite this, it often encounters erratic bioavailability and absorption to the target. Nanoparticles developed through nanotechnology platforms could be the better topical skin cancer therapy option. To improve the topical delivery, the nano-sized delivery system is appropriate as it fuses with the cutaneous layer and fluidized membrane; thus, the deeper penetration of therapeutics could be possible to reach the target spot. This review briefly outlooks the various nanoparticle preparations, i.e., liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, transethosomes, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles technologies tested into skin cancer and impede their progress tend to concentrate in the skin layers. Nanocarriers have proved that they can considerably boost medication bioavailability, lowering the frequency of dosage and reducing the toxicity associated with high doses of the medication.

Niosomes in cancer treatment: A focus on curcumin encapsulation

Curcumin is widely used as a therapeutic drug for cancer treatment. However, its limited absorption and rapid excretion are the major therapeutic limitations to its clinical use. Using niosomes as a curcumin delivery system is a cheap, easy, and less toxic strategy for enhancing the absorption of curcumin by cells and delaying its excretion. Thus, there is a vital need to explore curcumin niosomes to configure the curcumin to suitably serve and aid current pharmacokinetics in treatments for cancer. To date, no comprehensive review has focused on the cytotoxic effects of curcumin niosomes on malignant cells. Thus, this review provides a critical analysis of the curcumin niosomes in cancer treatment, formulations of curcumin niosomes, characterizations of curcumin niosomes, and factors influencing their performance. The findings from this review article can strongly accelerate the understanding of curcumin niosomes and pave a brighter direction towards advances in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical industries.

Recent Advances in Nanoformulations for Quercetin Delivery

Quercetin (QUE) is a flavonol that has recently received great attention from the research community due to its important pharmacological properties. However, QUE's low solubility and extended first-pass metabolism limit its oral administration. This review aims to present the potential of various nanoformulations in the development of QUE dosage forms for bioavailability enhancement. Advanced drug delivery nanosystems can be used for more efficient encapsulation, targeting, and controlled release of QUE. An overview of the primary nanosystem categories, formulation processes, and characterization techniques are described. In particular, lipid-based nanocarriers, such as liposomes, nanostructured-lipid carries, and solid-lipid nanoparticles, are widely used to improve QUE's oral absorption and targeting, increase its antioxidant activity, and ensure sustained release. Moreover, polymer-based nanocarriers exhibit unique properties for the improvement of the Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicology (ADME(T)) profile. Namely, micelles and hydrogels composed of natural or synthetic polymers have been applied in QUE formulations. Furthermore, cyclodextrin, niosomes, and nanoemulsions are proposed as formulation alternatives for administration via different routes. This comprehensive review provides insight into the role of advanced drug delivery nanosystems for the formulation and delivery of QUE.

Oral administration of nano-tyrosol reversed the diabetes-induced liver damage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Objectives

The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of Tyrosol and Nano-tyrosol on the cellular arrangement, collagen disposition, protein level of insulin receptor (INSR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in both control and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Methods

Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) was induced in rats by a single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (50 mg/kg). Experimental rats were administered Tyrosol and Nano-tyrosol 1 ml intra-gastrically at a dose of 20 mg/kg once a day for 30 days. Then, rats were sacrificed according to ethical principles. Livers were removed and processed for histological studies using the paraffin technique. Furthermore, non-paraffin sections were used for the INSR-1 western blot technique.

Results

At the end of the experiments, the rats in diabetic control and plain niosome groups exhibited a significant increase in collagen disposition (p < 0.001), and apoptotic cells (p < 0.001), as well as decreased total protein levels of INSR (p < 0.001), and SOD activity (p < 0.001) in the hepatic cells. Oral administration of Tyrosol and Nano-tyrosol to diabetic rats reversed all the above-mentioned parameters to near normal levels (p < 0.001). Nano-tyrosol showed the highest significant effect rather than Tyrosol.

Conclusion

The results of the present study suggested the beneficial effects of Tyrosol and especially Nano-tyrosol on decreasing the adverse effects of diabetes.