Curricular and Co-curricular Coverage of Leadership Competencies and the Influence of Extracurricular Engagement on Leadership Development

Professional Pharmacy Fraternities as a Mechanism for Co-Curricular Learning: A Qualitative Analysis of Two Organizations

OBJECTIVE

Professional pharmacy fraternal organizations are among the most common student organizations in schools and colleges of pharmacy, present on 98% of campuses. However, sparse literature explores the educational value these organizations offer. The purpose of this review is to explore the alignment of national requirements of two major pharmacy fraternities with co-curricular learning objectives.

METHODS

All four fraternal pharmacy organizations recognized by the Professional Fraternal Association were invited to collaborate on this project. Ultimately, two fraternities participated by gathering national office requirements for reports and activities for collegiate chapters. Qualitative review of fraternity requirements was conducted via manifest content analysis by two independent reviewers, and items were coded to the relevant co-curricular domain(s) from the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education Standards 2016; disagreements were resolved by a third author.

RESULTS

A total of 50 fraternity requirements were identified and mapped to one or more co-curricular domains, for a total of 63 codings. All six co-curricular domains were coded at least once. The most common codings were professionalism and leadership. Significant overlap existed in requirements that encompassed professionalism plus cultural sensitivity, professionalism plus self-awareness, and self-awareness plus leadership. Some activities benefited the school or community, while others solely contributed to individual member professional development.

CONCLUSION

Professional pharmacy fraternities provide ample co-curricular learning opportunities among the breadth of affective domains. The mission and vision of these organizations foster affective domain skill development in both school- and community-facing events as well as dedicated individual professional development.

Leadership Development in Pharmacy Students: A Literature Review

Background

A deeper understanding of leadership competencies and development of these competencies in pharmacy students are essential to enable future pharmacists to take a more advanced role in patient care and serve as interdisciplinary team members and leaders. Such efforts are also needed to help guide succession planning.

Objective

To identify and describe the competencies and experiences involved in leadership development for pharmacy students.

Data Sources

A literature review was conducted using the MEDLINE, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases (from inception to November 2023), as well as syllabi from pharmacy leadership courses.

Study Selection and Data Extraction

Articles discussing leadership competencies in a health care setting and during pharmacy education and training were included. Competencies and experiences related to leadership development were extracted and organized into categories, with each category given a single descriptor.

Data Synthesis

A total of 34 resources were included in the analysis, which revealed the following 7 leadership competencies: leadership knowledge, self-awareness, collaboration, leading change, business skills, systems thinking, and lifelong learning.

Conclusions

Pharmacy students can develop their leadership abilities through a variety of experiences and activities aligned with the core leadership competencies identified here. Pharmacy schools in Canada can design and offer leadership placements to help enhance students' leadership skills. This study has highlighted activities that may help prepare pharmacy students for leadership roles in the changing landscape of pharmacy practice.

A co-curricular mentoring experience provides student pharmacists with areas for professional growth

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The Pharmacy Innovation Experience and Research (PIER) program aims to provide student pharmacists with co-curricular experiences that augment their essential soft skill training while recruiting underrepresented minority (URM) high school and undergraduate students to the pharmacy profession. The goal of the PIER mentoring program is to enhance the leadership, professionalism, teaching, and cultural sensitivity skills of student pharmacists through their participation in the program.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

During this pilot study, student pharmacists were trained to mentor high school and undergraduate students prior to the start of PIER. Pre- and post-program surveys were used to assess the self-perceived benefit PIER had on the soft skill development of student pharmacists. Survey responses were analyzed using unpaired t-tests.

FINDINGS

There was an observed increase in self-perceived abilities among student pharmacists in mentoring (82% versus 68%), leading a team (94% versus 82%), and teaching (77% versus 64%). In post-program surveys, 90% of the students viewed their experience as useful for their career versus 71% in pre-surveys. While a high percentage felt comfortable interacting with diverse participants (90%) and knowledgeable about diversity issues in healthcare (89%), the data indicated that the PIER program did not have a quantifiable impact on their cultural sensitivity.

SUMMARY

PIER is a co-curricular program for student pharmacists that enhances self-perception of essential soft skills for their careers. Nevertheless, additional assessment of the skills gained through PIER is needed to verify competency. Other schools of pharmacy should recognize the importance of programs like PIER to both recruit URMs to pharmacy schools and provide current students with a co-curricular experience that will encourage their success.

An Exploratory Qualitative Study of Student Pharmacist Perspectives on Leadership

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to (1) explore student pharmacists' knowledge and perceptions of leadership characteristics and behaviors, and (2) identify where students have opportunities to observe and exhibit leadership.

METHODS

Data were collected from 32 students participating in a pharmacy leadership elective. Students submitted reflections about leadership definitions, characteristics, observations of leadership, and times when they felt like a leader. An inductive constant comparative analysis was used to code and categorize text segments from the reflections using NVivo 1.7.1 (Lumivero; Denver, CO). Holistic consideration of the reflections was used to identify an overarching theme.

RESULTS

Three categories were specified to organize the data from the qualitative analysis: (1) Leader Characteristics, (2) Leading Behaviors, and (3) Leadership Contexts. One overarching theme was proposed encompassing the categories and sub-categories: Leadership Contradictions. The theme is based on the finding that students seemed able to identify leadership characteristics but emphasized descriptions like holding titles and completing managerial or task-focused duties, suggesting contradictions between conceptual understanding of leadership and leadership behaviors.

CONCLUSION

The contradictions between students' conceptual understanding of leadership and what they offered as examples of how and where leadership was observed or applied to practice suggest additional activities and experiences may be warranted to help students appreciate that leadership extends beyond formal roles and demonstrates the ability to influence and support the achievement of shared goals of a team. Additionally, a multi-modal approach may enhance leadership assessment.

Activating the American Association of Colleges of Nursing Essentials Through Competency-Based Leadership in Graduate Student Organizations

BACKGROUND

As nursing programs across the nation shift toward a competency-based education model, academic institutions are working to quantify student learning outcomes based on the new American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN, 2021) Essentials, domains, competencies, and sub-competencies.

METHOD

Leveraging AACN Essentials, faculty and graduate nursing students engage in student organizations with the focus of Population Health, Professionalism, and Personal, Professional and Leadership Development (AACN, 2021).

RESULTS

Graduate student members are involved in practicum activities throughout the course of their education. Through collaboration with faculty, the student body, and other community partners, student leaders integrate experiences applicable to professional roles outside of academia (AACN, 2021). As a result, students gain skills in leadership and communication, while also gaining confidence and professional identity formation.

CONCLUSION

Other academic institutions may replicate this approach in promoting competency-based education, experiences and development in alignment with the AACN Essentials. [J Nurs Educ. 2023;62(10):580-583.].

Leadership Development Strategies in Interprofessional Healthcare Collaboration: A Rapid Review

Background

Contemporary healthcare practitioners require leadership skills for a variety of professional roles related to improved patient/client outcomes, heightened personal and professional development, as well as strengthened interprofessional collaboration and teamwork.

Objective/Aim

The aim of this study is to systematically catalogue literature on leadership in healthcare practice and education to highlight the leadership characteristics and skills required by healthcare practitioners for collaborative interprofessional service delivery and the leadership development strategies found to be effective.

Methods/Design

A rapid review was conducted. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) diagram shows that the 11 databases, yielded 465 records. A total of 147 records were removed during the initial screening phase. The remaining 318 records were uploaded onto Rayyan, an online collaborative review platform. Following abstract level screening, a further 236 records were removed with 82 records meeting the eligibility criteria at full text level, of which 42 were included in the data extraction. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) was used for quality appraisal.

Results

Results showed variability in methodologies used, representing various healthcare disciplines with a range in population size (n = 6 to n = 537). Almost half of the results reported on new programs, with interprofessional collaboration and teamwork being the most frequently mentioned strategies. The training content, strategies used as well as the length of training varied. There were five outcomes which showed positive change, namely skills, knowledge, confidence, attitudes, and satisfaction.

Conclusion

This rapid review provided an evidence-base, highlighted by qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research, which presents distinct opportunities for curriculum development by focusing on both content and the methods needed for leadership programs. Anchoring this evidence-base within a systematic search of the extant literature provides increased precision for curriculum development.

Validation of the specialized competency framework for pharmacists in hospital settings (SCF-PHS): a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to validate the content of the specialized competency frameworks for pharmacists working in hospital settings (hospital and clinical pharmacists) and pilot the frameworks for practice assessment.

METHODS

This online cross-sectional study was carried out between March and October 2022 among a sample of 96 Lebanese pharmacists working in hospital settings. The frameworks were distributed to full-time hospital and clinical pharmacists, who filled them out according to their role in the hospital.

RESULTS

Overall, the competencies were distributed over five domains for hospital pharmacists (fundamental skills, safe and rational use of medicines, patient-centered care, professional skills, and preparedness for emergencies), while for clinical pharmacists, competencies were distributed over seven domains (quality improvement, clinical knowledge and skills, soft skills, ability to conduct clinical research, ability to provide effective education, use information technology to make decisions and reduce errors, and emergency preparedness). Moreover, Cronbach alpha values were appropriate, indicating sufficient to high internal consistency. Pharmacists were highly confident in most competencies, with some exceptions related to research in emergency settings (data evaluation, research, and reporting).

CONCLUSIONS

This study could validate competency frameworks for clinical and hospital pharmacists, with the competencies and their respective behaviors showing an adequate construct analysis. It also identified the domains that require further development, i.e., soft skills and research in emergency settings. Both these domains are timely and needed to overcome the current practice challenges in Lebanon.

Mapping Course Assessments to Canadian Pharmacy Educational Outcomes to Ensure Pharmacy Students' Practice Readiness

Objective. The entry-to-practice PharmD degree is designed to meet the Educational Outcomes of the Association of Faculties of Pharmacy of Canada (AFPC). We set out to evaluate how assessment strategies in a "capstone" course align with AFPC educational outcomes, their respective key and enabling competencies, and whether enough assessments exist for students to demonstrate achievement of competencies prior to embarking on advanced pharmacy practice experiences.Methods. We mapped each assessment's objectives, content, and methods to the key and enabling competencies of each role of a pharmacist. The number of enabling competencies mapped represents the extent to which the assessment addressed the associated key competency and broader role. Deidentified student performance data were analyzed to identify achievement of competencies despite failed assessments.Results. Of the seven role descriptions, the roles care provider, communicator, and collaborator were the most comprehensively assessed. The roles leader-manager and health advocate were assessed to a limited extent. The role scholar was not covered to a great depth across assessments. The role professional was not represented in most assessments except for the final examination. Students with failed assessments generally had ample opportunity to demonstrate competencies through other assessments.Conclusion. Mapping assessments to AFPC educational outcomes is an essential step to demonstrate direct evidence that students have achieved the intended learning outcomes. Our map revealed that the assessments sufficiently overlapped with most AFPC educational outcomes with a few exceptions. It is important to create multiple opportunities within a course for students to demonstrate achievement of competencies to ensure practice readiness.

Management, entrepreneurship, continuing professional development, and leadership education in United States doctor of pharmacy curricula: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

As doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curricula must fulfill accreditation standards emphasizing managerial skills, entrepreneurship, continuing professional development (CPD), and leadership, there is interest among faculty to incorporate high-quality, evidence-based educational strategies. To date there has not been a comprehensive review of these four topics in one paper; therefore, we aimed to describe the landscape of the published literature and areas for future research.

METHODS

A keyword search of Academic Search Complete/Premier and OvidMedline databases identified articles published between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2020. Inclusion criteria included primary, peer-reviewed literature describing the implementation and evaluation of teaching methodologies on aspects of management, entrepreneurship, CPD, or leadership in United States PharmD programs. Titles and abstracts were screened for inclusion. Key information regarding instructional design and assessment were retrieved to develop narrative summaries of activities and outcomes and to chart the student year of study, sample size, mode of delivery (didactic/experiential/co-curricular), type of experience (required/optional), and learning activity.

RESULTS

Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria and were categorized: management (n = 12), entrepreneurship (n = 2), CPD (n = 7), and leadership (n = 14). The articles provided example activities that faculty across the country can consider implementing. Identified gaps included a focus on episodic and/or optional experiences and a relative lack of objective and longitudinal assessment practices.

IMPLICATIONS

This review describes educational methodologies for management, entrepreneurship, CPD, and leadership that can be replicated or adapted. Additional reports of innovative educational practices assessed through valid and reliable methods are needed.

Developing Leadership Skills in Pharmacy Education

Leadership could refer to holding official leadership positions or advocating for patients and the profession. Different pharmacy organizations recommend the inclusion of leadership development in pharmacy education and as such some pharmacy schools have introduced courses or various initiatives which support the development of leadership skills. In this commentary, we discuss means by which various pharmacy schools incorporate ways to develop leadership skills. This commentary also addresses the competencies used to assess leadership skills in pharmacy education.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40670-022-01532-x.

Assessment of the impact of co-curricular activities on achievement of Doctor of Pharmacy program outcomes

INTRODUCTION

Co-curricular activities are recognized as an increasingly important aspect of pharmacy education. However, the impact of these activities on student learning is not well understood compared to that of curricular learning. The purpose of this study was to assess student-perceived progress in achieving program outcomes through voluntary co-curricular activities compared with learning of the same outcomes through mandatory curricular activities.

METHODS

The study was performed over six semesters between fall 2017 and spring 2020 at the University of Southern California School of Pharmacy. Separate surveys were sent to all first- through third-year doctor of pharmacy students each semester to assess the impact of curricular and co-curricular activities on improvement in six program outcomes. Graduating student survey data were also mapped to learning outcomes to assess improvement of these outcomes upon graduation.

RESULTS

Three main results emerged from these data. First, there was greater variation in the impact of co-curricular activities on different learning outcomes compared to the effect of curricular activities on the same outcomes. Second, co-curricular activities had a greater impact on "soft skills," including leadership and professionalism, compared to concrete knowledge in areas such as therapeutic mechanisms. Finally, the impact of co-curricular activities on most learning outcomes diminished with progression through the curriculum while the impact of curricular activities remained relatively constant.

CONCLUSIONS

Student-perceived improvement in learning of program outcomes differs when based on co-curricular compared to curricular activities. These results show how these activities can complement each other in achievement of program outcomes.

Differences in learning styles, critical thinking skills, and peer evaluations between students with and without leadership engagement

INTRODUCTION

Leadership has long been suggested as an attribute essential to the pharmacy profession. Academic pharmacy has identified and addressed the need for leadership development among student pharmacists. The objective of this study is to assess differences in learning styles, critical thinking skills, and peer-perceived leadership skill evaluations between those with vs. without student leadership engagement (SLE).

METHODS

Four cohorts of pharmacy students were included in the analysis. Each student completed the Kolb Learning Style Inventory and Health Science Reasoning Test (HSRT) during pharmacy school orientation. Student-peer evaluation scores were derived from three courses and assessed important leadership skills such as communication, critical thinking, teamwork, and professionalism. Descriptive analysis was performed; group difference was tested using independent group t-tests on continuous variables and Fisher exact tests on categorical variables.

RESULTS

This study included 205 pharmacy students from the Classes of 2018 to 2021; 63 students (31%) displayed SLE. No significant differences were found in the peer evaluation scores between students with and without SLE. Students with SLE showed significantly higher scores in domains of the HSRT and the overall HSRT score.

CONCLUSIONS

The study results showed that HSRT assessment of critical thinking skills was significantly higher in students engaging in leadership, suggesting that HSRT should be explored as a possible predictor for SLE in future studies.

Challenges to Implementation of the Co-Curriculum in Accredited Pharmacy Programs

Objective. To determine areas of concern, and challenges to implementing and assessing the co-curriculum in accredited Doctor of Pharmacy programs, along with how confident programs are in their ability to meet the co-curriculum requirement as mandated by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE).Methods. A survey was administered to all ACPE-accredited pharmacy programs to collect information regarding areas of concern, challenges, and confidence in their ability to meet the co-curriculum requirement. The frequency of responses to items are presented along with comparisons based on characteristics, including institution type, cohort size, most recent ACPE accreditation review, and supporting offices.Results. The most common concerns centered on the documentation and assessment process. The most commonly reported challenges were lack of enthusiasm or buy-in from faculty, staff, and students; lack of a clear definition of co-curriculum; and faculty time and insufficient staff. Overall, programs had a high level of confidence in their ability to meet the requirements for co-curriculum. The only differences found were related to supporting offices and cohort size.Conclusion. The results suggest that having supporting offices may reduce the co-curriculum burden. Similarly, student cohort size may have an impact on the challenges for some programs, particularly those with moderate-sized cohorts reporting challenges related to faculty and staff. Further research is needed to determine how programs address these critical issues, and to explore whether programs report differently on these areas after completing an accreditation review. The study results may be useful to members of the Academy when evaluating co-curriculum.

Student perceptions of co-curricular activities on pharmacy education: A review

BACKGROUND

The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education Standards 2016 emphasize the incorporation of a co-curriculum in pharmacy education. However, how students perceive the value of these activities is still unclear. The objectives of this study were to (1) describe how students perceive co-curricular involvement, (2) identify barriers that impede student engagement in co-curricular activities, and (3) assess the influence of co-curricular activities on academic performance.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using the Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Academic Search Complete, PsycInfo, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ProQuest Central databases. Search terms used within each database were "co-curricular" AND "pharmacy learning OR pharmacy education OR pharmacy student." Studies were included in the review if they addressed pharmacy student perceptions of or barriers to co-curricular activity.

RESULTS

Eleven studies met the criteria for inclusion. Student perceptions of co-curricular activities were consistently positive, reflecting perceived improvement in self-confidence and abilities. Barriers to student engagement included voluntary participation and student's limited scope of practice. Engagement in co-curricular activities also improved academic performance and clinical knowledge.

IMPLICATIONS

Co-curricular activities have a perceived positive impact on student confidence and abilities as practitioners. Participation in co-curricular activities provides benefits to students in their academic, professional, and personal development in ways that are not always supported in a didactic curriculum. Incorporating co-curricular activity is justified from the student perspective in the framework of pharmacy student development and maturation.

Introduction to leadership development using the "Five Practices" framework in a co-curricular pharmacy student-development program

Introduction and leadership framework: With the increased expectation that pharmacy education should prepare students to become pharmacy leaders, schools of pharmacy are struggling to find ways to incorporate leadership topics. One way to incorporate content is to build co-curricular programs that introduce and practice leadership frameworks. The co-curricular program described in this study introduces leadership content using Kouzes and Posner's Student Leadership Challenge. Educational context and methods: Students were offered three workshops developed around the Five Practices framework. Each workshop provided background knowledge before engaging in self-reflection, discussion, and application activities. Students participated in a pre-/post-series assessment of leadership practices, as well as surveys after each workshop assessing achievement of learning outcomes. Findings and discussion: Average attendance at the workshops was 68, with participation from all professional years. A total of 43 students participated in the entire series and completed the pre- and post-surveys. In general, a majority of students found that the learning objectives of each session were met, and > 90% found that sessions were beneficial and that they planned to implement what they learned. In the pre- and post-series assessment, students experienced statistically significant improvements in four of the five practices as well as in their perceived overall leadership skills (P < .001). Implications: This program represents an easily implemented option for schools of pharmacy to increase leadership development. Requiring a small amount of student commitment and faculty investment, meaningful gains in leadership skills and knowledge can be gained within the student population.

The research of international and national educational standards on leadership development for pharmacy students

To estimate the level of usage of leadership development opportunities, International Pharmaceutical Federation official data and national educational and professional standards for pharmacy students in such countries as the USA, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada have been analyzed. According to the results, leadership knowledge and skills are of great importance to provide people with advanced pharmaceutical care. The most common leadership abilities for students getting pharmaceutical education deal with personal leadership (self-awareness, self-motivation, emotional intelligence, innovative mindset), teamwork, effective collaboration with other health professionals, building of a shared vision, resulting in the ability to become a change agent for sustainable development and improvement of health care system.

Mapping Pharmacy Student Learning During Cocurricular Activities to National Standards and Institutional Outcomes

Objective. To assess pharmacy student learning from co-curricular activities and map this to Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education (ACPE) standards and the institution's curricular outcomes.Methods. Student representatives of professional organizations at one college of pharmacy were asked to complete a 16-item questionnaire on behalf of their members about each cocurricular activity their organization completed. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the results. Content analysis was conducted on open-ended questions, and resulting codes were mapped to ACPE Standards 2016 and curricular outcomes.Results. The majority (74%) of the 152 unique cocurricular activities reported were designated as community outreach events and an average of 15 (SD=43) student members participated in each activity. The most frequently selected domain by student representatives was "promoted professionalism" for 86% of activities. Upon distilling student representatives' open-ended responses regarding their members' learning, each response was assigned to one or more of 34 codes. The most frequently assigned codes to learning descriptions (36%) were for patient education and counseling.Conclusion. Representatives of student organizations characterized their members' participation in cocurricular activities as opportunities for learning. The results from the content analysis aligned with the quantitative data collected. Cocurricular activities provide opportunities for Doctor of Pharmacy students to enhance their skills, knowledge, and attitudes in both pharmacy practice and personal areas that map to ACPE Standards 2016 and the college's own curricular outcomes.

Advancing Our Pharmacy Reformation - Accelerating Education and Practice Transformation: Report of the 2019-2020 Argus Commission

The Argus Commission examined changes that should be considered by colleges and schools of pharmacy to meet the bold aim of better integrating pharmacists' and physicians' practices articulated by President Sorensen. The Commission assessed the readiness of pharmacy educators to contribute to the acceleration of practice transformation. The primary focus of the report is on how the doctor of pharmacy curriculum and post-graduate training might be modified and better aligned to ensure that graduates complete their education ready to engage in roles partnered with primary care clinicians. The aim is to achieve comprehensive medication management and other pharmacist patient care services as standards of care. The Argus Commission provides preliminary recommendations for new or more intensified priorities by the 2020-21 AACP Strategic Planning Committee as they update the AACP plan. This includes the recommendation that AACP should create the Center for Academic Innovation and Practice Transformation, a hub to coordinate many current and emerging activities relevant to accelerating change in pharmacy education and practice.

Assessing the Co-Curriculum by Mapping Student Organization Involvement to Curricular Outcomes Using Mixed Methods

Objective. To use institution-specific curricular outcomes as a framework to map skill development opportunities available through cocurricular involvement in pharmacy student organizations. Methods. Participants completed a modified Extracurricular Involvement Inventory individually to measure the intensity of their involvement in each student organization. Participants also completed the Co-Curriculum Outcomes Assessment Mapping Survey (COAMS) instrument as a group to indicate what skills (ie, curricular outcomes) they developed through involvement in a student organization and student organization activities, programs, and events, and to provide examples of these skills. Data sources were triangulated to map skill development opportunities in the co-curriculum to curricular outcomes. Results. The COAMS identified all curricular outcomes as skills students have the opportunity to develop through student organization involvement in the co-curriculum. Communication was the most common skill identified. Other common skills included professionalism and ethical behavior, collaboration and influence, and in-depth knowledge and proficient skills. A co-curriculum heat map was used to illustrate the degree to which students reported these skills were emphasized through student organization involvement in the co-curriculum. Conclusion. Evaluation of activities in the context of curricular outcomes can provide a more comprehensive understanding of how the co-curriculum complements the curriculum, thereby complying with accreditation expectations. Cocurricular mapping provides valuable information regarding student skill development opportunities to multiple stakeholders (eg, students, faculty, curriculum leadership). This process can be applied to diverse programs, adapted to measure institution-specific experiences, and measure various constructs of interest.