Optical Tissue Clearing: Illuminating Brain Function and Dysfunction

NIR-II Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Nanoprobes in Biomedicine: Current Impact and Future Directions

The field of second near-infrared (NIR-II) surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoprobes has made commendable progress in biomedicine. This article reviews recent advances and future development of NIR-II SERS nanoprobes. It introduces the fundamental principles of SERS nanoprobes and highlights key advances in the NIR-II window, including reduced tissue attenuation, deep penetration, maximized allowable exposure, and improved photostability. The discussion of future directions includes the refinement of nanoprobe substrates, emphasizing the tailoring of optical properties of metallic SERS-active nanoprobes, and exploring non-metallic alternatives. The intricacies of designing Raman reporters for the NIR-II resonance and the potential of these reporters to advance the field are also discussed. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into nanoprobe design represents a cutting-edge approach to overcome current challenges. This article also examines the emergence of deep Raman techniques for through-tissue SERS detection, toward NIR-II SERS tomography. It acknowledges instrumental advancements like improved charge-coupled device sensitivity and accelerated imaging speeds. The article concludes by addressing the critical aspects of biosafety, ease of functionalization, compatibility, and the path to clinical translation. With a comprehensive overview of current achievements and future prospects, this review aims to illuminate the path for NIR-II SERS nanoprobes to innovate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in biomedicine.

Animal models to study cognitive impairment of chronic kidney disease

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is common in people with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and its prevalence increases with progressive loss of kidney function. MCI is characterized by a decline in cognitive performance greater than expected for an individual age and education level but with minimal impairment of instrumental activities of daily living. Deterioration can affect one or several cognitive domains (attention, memory, executive functions, language, and perceptual motor or social cognition). Given the increasing prevalence of kidney disease, more and more people with CKD will also develop MCI causing an enormous disease burden for these individuals, their relatives, and society. However, the underlying pathomechanisms are poorly understood, and current therapies mostly aim at supporting patients in their daily lives. This illustrates the urgent need to elucidate the pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets and test novel therapies in appropriate preclinical models. Here, we will outline the necessary criteria for experimental modeling of cognitive disorders in CKD. We discuss the use of mice, rats, and zebrafish as model systems and present valuable techniques through which kidney function and cognitive impairment can be assessed in this setting. Our objective is to enable researchers to overcome hurdles and accelerate preclinical research aimed at improving the therapy of people with CKD and MCI.

Applications of Tissue Clearing in Central and Peripheral Nerves

The techniques of tissue clearing have been proposed and applied in anatomical and biomedical research since the 19th century. As we all know, the original study of the nervous system relied on serial ultrathin sections and stereoscopic techniques. The 3D visualization of the nervous system was established by software splicing and reconstruction. With the development of science and technology, microscope equipment had constantly been upgraded. Despite the great progress that has been made in this field, the workload is too complex, and it needs high technical requirements. Abundant mistakes due to manual sections were inescapable and structural integrity remained questionable. According to the classification of tissue transparency methods, we introduced the latest application of transparency methods in central and peripheral nerve research from optical imaging, molecular markers and data analysis. This review summarizes the application of transparent technology in neural pathways. We hope to provide some inspiration for the continuous optimization of tissue clearing methods.

Unraveling the Neural Circuits: Techniques, Opportunities and Challenges in Epilepsy Research

Epilepsy, a prevalent neurological disorder characterized by high morbidity, frequent recurrence, and potential drug resistance, profoundly affects millions of people globally. Understanding the microscopic mechanisms underlying seizures is crucial for effective epilepsy treatment, and a thorough understanding of the intricate neural circuits underlying epilepsy is vital for the development of targeted therapies and the enhancement of clinical outcomes. This review begins with an exploration of the historical evolution of techniques used in studying neural circuits related to epilepsy. It then provides an extensive overview of diverse techniques employed in this domain, discussing their fundamental principles, strengths, limitations, as well as their application. Additionally, the synthesis of multiple techniques to unveil the complexity of neural circuits is summarized. Finally, this review also presents targeted drug therapies associated with epileptic neural circuits. By providing a critical assessment of methodologies used in the study of epileptic neural circuits, this review seeks to enhance the understanding of these techniques, stimulate innovative approaches for unraveling epilepsy's complexities, and ultimately facilitate improved treatment and clinical translation for epilepsy.

Photostimulation of lymphatic clearance of β-amyloid from mouse brain: a new strategy for the therapy of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder that poses a significant burden on socio-economic and healthcare systems worldwide. However, the currently available therapy of AD is limited, and new strategies are needed to enhance the clearance of β-amyloid (Aβ) protein and improve cognitive function. Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive and effective therapeutic method that has shown promise in treating various brain diseases. Here, we demonstrate that 1267-nm PBM significantly alleviates cognitive decline in the 5xFAD mouse model of AD and is safe as it does not induce a significant increase in cortical temperature. Moreover, with the combination of 3D tissue optical clearing imaging and automatic brain region segmentation, we show that PBM-mediated reductions of Aβ plaques in different subregions of prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus are different. The PBM-induced lymphatic clearance of Aβ from the brain is associated with improvement of memory and cognitive functions in 5xFAD mice. Our results suggest that the modulation of meningeal lymphatic vessels (MLVs) should play an important role in promoting Aβ clearance. Collectively, this pilot study demonstrates that PBM can safely accelerate lymphatic clearance of Aβ from the brain of 5xFAD mice, promoting improvement of neurocognitive status of AD animals suggesting that PBM can be an effective and bedside therapy for AD.

Evaluation of cellular activity in response to sleep deprivation by a comprehensive analysis of the whole mouse brain

Sleep deprivation (SD) causes several adverse functional outcomes, and understanding the associated processes can improve quality of life. Although the effects of SD on neuronal activity in several brain regions have been identified, a comprehensive evaluation of the whole brain is still lacking. Hence, we performed SD using two different methods, gentle handling and a dedicated chamber, in targeted recombination in active populations 2 (TRAP2) mice crossed with Rosa-ZsGreen reporter mice and visualized cellular activity in the whole brain. Using the semi-automated post-imaging analysis tool Slice Histology Alignment, Registration, and Cell Quantification (SHARCQ), the number of activated cells was quantified. From the analysis of 14 brain regions, cellular activity was significantly increased in the olfactory areas and decreased in the medulla by the two SD methods. From the analysis of the further subdivided 348 regions, cellular activity was significantly increased in the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, lateral hypothalamic area, parabigeminal nucleus, ventral tegmental area, and magnocellular reticular nucleus, and decreased in the anterior part of the basolateral amygdalar nucleus, nucleus accumbens, septohippocampal nucleus, reticular nucleus of the thalamus, preoptic part of the periventricular hypothalamic nucleus, ventromedial preoptic nucleus, rostral linear nucleus raphe, facial motor nucleus, vestibular nuclei, and some fiber tracts (oculomotor nerve, genu of corpus callosum, and rubrospinal tract) by the two SD methods. Two subdivided regions of the striatum (caudoputamen and other striatum), epithalamus, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, anteroventral preoptic nucleus, superior colliculus optic layer, medial terminal nucleus of the accessory optic tract, pontine gray, and fiber tracts (medial lemniscus, columns of the fornix, brachium of the inferior colliculus, and mammillary peduncle) were differentially affected by the two SD methods. Most brain regions detected from these analyses have been reported to be involved in regulating sleep/wake regulatory circuits. Moreover, the results from the connectivity analysis indicated that the connectivity of cellular activity among brain regions was altered by SD. Together, such a comprehensive analysis of the whole brain is useful for understanding the mechanisms by which SD and/or sleep disruption affects brain function.

Combining tissue clearing and Fluoro-Jade C labeling for neurotoxicity assessments

Tissue clearing refers to laboratory methods that make tissue transparent by chemical means. This approach allows the labeling, visualization, and analysis of specific targets without cutting the tissue into sections, thereby maintaining three-dimensional architecture. More than two dozen tissue-clearing methods have been developed by different research teams to date. While tissue clearing has been successfully applied in several studies concerning basic science or diseases, little is known about the utilization of tissue clearing for neurotoxicity evaluation. In this study, several tissue-clearing methods were combined with Fluoro-Jade C (FJ-C), a standard marker of neurodegeneration. The results suggest that some but not all tissue-clearing media are compatible with the FJ-C fluorophore. By utilizing a neurotoxicity animal model, the results further suggest that FJ-C labeling can be combined with tissue clearing for neurotoxicity assessments. This approach has the potential to be expanded further by combining multicolor labeling of molecular targets involved in the development and/or mechanisms of neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration.

Tissue Clearing and Its Application in the Musculoskeletal System

The musculoskeletal system is an integral part of the human body. Currently, most skeletal muscle research is conducted through conventional histological sections due to technological limitations and the structure of skeletal muscles. For studying and observing bones and muscles, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional, objective imaging technologies. Optical tissue-clearing technologies seem to offer a novel and accessible approach to research of the musculoskeletal system. Using this approach, the components which cause refraction or prevent light from penetrating into the tissue are physically and chemically eliminated; then the liquid in the tissue is replaced with high-refractive-index chemicals. This innovative method, which allows three-dimensional reconstruction at the cellular and subcellular scale, significantly improves imaging depth and resolution. Nonetheless, this technology was not originally developed to image bones or muscles. When compared with brain and nerve organs which have attracted considerable attention in this field, the musculoskeletal system contains fewer lipids and has high levels of hemoglobin, collagen fibers, and inorganic hydroxyapatite crystals. Currently, three-dimensional imaging methods are widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of skeletal and muscular illnesses. In this regard, it is vitally important to review and evaluate the optical tissue-clearing technologies currently employed in the musculoskeletal system, so that researchers may make an informed decision. In the meantime, this study offers guidelines and recommendations for expanding the use of this technology in the musculoskeletal system.

Obesity-Related Neuroinflammation: Magnetic Resonance and Microscopy Imaging of the Brain

Obesity is a major risk factor of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. The principal feature of dementia is a loss of neurons and brain atrophy. The mechanistic links between obesity and the neurodegenerative processes of dementias are not fully understood, but recent research suggests that obesity-related systemic inflammation and subsequent neuroinflammation may be involved. Adipose tissues release multiple proinflammatory molecules (fatty acids and cytokines) that impact blood and vessel cells, inducing low-grade systemic inflammation that can transition to tissues, including the brain. Inflammation in the brain-neuroinflammation-is one of key elements of the pathobiology of neurodegenerative disorders; it is characterized by the activation of microglia, the resident immune cells in the brain, and by the structural and functional changes of other cells forming the brain parenchyma, including neurons. Such cellular changes have been shown in animal models with direct methods, such as confocal microscopy. In humans, cellular changes are less tangible, as only indirect methods such as magnetic resonance (MR) imaging are usually used. In these studies, obesity and low-grade systemic inflammation have been associated with lower volumes of the cerebral gray matter, cortex, and hippocampus, as well as altered tissue MR properties (suggesting microstructural variations in cellular and molecular composition). How these structural variations in the human brain observed using MR imaging relate to the cellular variations in the animal brain seen with microscopy is not well understood. This review describes the current understanding of neuroinflammation in the context of obesity-induced systemic inflammation, and it highlights need for the bridge between animal microscopy and human MR imaging studies.

Tissue optical clearing for 3D visualization of vascular networks: A review

Reconstruction of the vasculature of intact tissues/organs down to the capillary level is essential for understanding the development and remodeling of vascular networks under physiological and pathological conditions. Optical imaging techniques can provide sufficient resolution to distinguish small vessels with several microns, but the imaging depth is somewhat limited due to the high light scattering of opaque tissue. Recently, various tissue optical clearing methods have been developed to overcome light attenuation and improve the imaging depth both for ex-vivo and in-vivo visualizations. Tissue clearing combined with vessel labeling techniques and advanced optical tomography enables successful mapping of the vasculature of different tissues/organs, as well as dynamically monitoring vessel function under normal and pathological conditions. Here, we briefly introduce the commonly-used labeling strategies for entire vascular networks, the current tissue optical clearing techniques available for various tissues, as well as the advanced optical imaging techniques for fast, high-resolution structural and functional imaging for blood vessels. We also discuss the applications of these techniques in the 3D visualization of vascular networks in normal tissues, and the vascular remodeling in several typical pathological models in clinical research. This review is expected to provide valuable insights for researchers to study the potential mechanisms of various vessel-associated diseases using tissue optical clearing pipeline.