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Gong T, McNally KL, Konanoor S, Peraza A, Bailey C, Redemann S, McNally FJ. Roles of Tubulin Concentration during Prometaphase and Ran-GTP during Anaphase of Caenorhabditis elegans Meiosis. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202402884. [PMID: 38960623 PMCID: PMC11222656 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202402884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024] Open
Abstract
In many animal species, the oocyte meiotic spindle, which is required for chromosome segregation, forms without centrosomes. In some systems, Ran-GEF on chromatin initiates spindle assembly. We found that in Caenorhabditis elegans oocytes, endogenously-tagged Ran-GEF dissociates from chromatin during spindle assembly but re-associates during meiotic anaphase. Meiotic spindle assembly occurred after auxin-induced degradation of Ran-GEF, but anaphase I was faster than controls and extrusion of the first polar body frequently failed. In search of a possible alternative pathway for spindle assembly, we found that soluble tubulin concentrates in the nuclear volume during germinal vesicle breakdown. We found that the concentration of soluble tubulin in the metaphase spindle region is enclosed by ER sheets which exclude cytoplasmic organelles including mitochondria and yolk granules. Measurement of the volume occupied by yolk granules and mitochondria indicated that volume exclusion would be sufficient to explain the concentration of tubulin in the spindle volume. We suggest that this concentration of soluble tubulin may be a redundant mechanism promoting spindle assembly near chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Gong
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Karen L McNally
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Siri Konanoor
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Alma Peraza
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Cynthia Bailey
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Stefanie Redemann
- https://ror.org/0153tk833 Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Francis J McNally
- https://ror.org/05rrcem69 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Zimyanin V, Redemann S. Microtubule length correlates with spindle length in C. elegans meiosis. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2024; 81:356-368. [PMID: 38450962 PMCID: PMC11333180 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The accurate segregation of chromosomes during female meiosis relies on the precise assembly and function of the meiotic spindle, a dynamic structure primarily composed of microtubules. Despite the crucial role of microtubule dynamics in this process, the relationship between microtubule length and spindle size remains elusive. Leveraging Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system, we combined electron tomography and live imaging to investigate this correlation. Our analysis revealed significant changes in spindle length throughout meiosis, coupled with alterations in microtubule length. Surprisingly, while spindle size decreases during the initial stages of anaphase, the size of antiparallel microtubule overlap decreased as well. Detailed electron tomography shows a positive correlation between microtubule length and spindle size, indicating a role of microtubule length in determining spindle dimensions. Notably, microtubule numbers displayed no significant association with spindle length, highlighting the dominance of microtubule length regulation in spindle size determination. Depletion of the microtubule depolymerase KLP-7 led to elongated metaphase spindles with increased microtubule length, supporting the link between microtubule length and spindle size. These findings underscore the pivotal role of regulating microtubule dynamics, and thus microtubule length, in governing spindle rearrangements during meiotic division, shedding light on fundamental mechanisms dictating spindle architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaly Zimyanin
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Stefanie Redemann
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Gong T, McNally KL, Konanoor S, Peraza A, Bailey C, Redemann S, McNally FJ. Roles of Tubulin Concentration during Prometaphase and Ran-GTP during Anaphase of C. elegans meiosis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.19.590357. [PMID: 38659754 PMCID: PMC11042349 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.19.590357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
In many animal species, the oocyte meiotic spindle, which is required for chromosome segregation, forms without centrosomes. In some systems, Ran-GEF on chromatin initiates spindle assembly. We found that in C. elegans oocytes, endogenously-tagged Ran-GEF dissociates from chromatin during spindle assembly but re-associates during meiotic anaphase. Meiotic spindle assembly occurred after auxin-induced degradation of Ran-GEF but anaphase I was faster than controls and extrusion of the first polar body frequently failed. In search of a possible alternative pathway for spindle assembly, we found that soluble tubulin concentrates in the nuclear volume during germinal vesicle breakdown. We found that the concentration of soluble tubulin in the metaphase spindle region is enclosed by ER sheets which exclude cytoplasmic organelles including mitochondria and yolk granules. Measurement of the volume occupied by yolk granules and mitochondria indicated that volume exclusion would be sufficient to explain the concentration of tubulin in the spindle volume. We suggest that this concentration of soluble tubulin may be a redundant mechanism promoting spindle assembly near chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Gong
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Karen L McNally
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Siri Konanoor
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Alma Peraza
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Cynthia Bailey
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Stefanie Redemann
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Francis J McNally
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, university of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Li W, Crellin HA, Cheerambathur D, McNally FJ. Redundant microtubule crosslinkers prevent meiotic spindle bending to ensure diploid offspring in C. elegans. PLoS Genet 2023; 19:e1011090. [PMID: 38150489 PMCID: PMC10775986 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1011090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Oocyte meiotic spindles mediate the expulsion of ¾ of the genome into polar bodies to generate diploid zygotes in nearly all animal species. Failures in this process result in aneuploid or polyploid offspring that are typically inviable. Accurate meiotic chromosome segregation and polar body extrusion require the spindle to elongate while maintaining its structural integrity. Previous studies have implicated three hypothetical activities during this process, including microtubule crosslinking, microtubule sliding and microtubule polymerization. However, how these activities regulate spindle rigidity and elongation as well as the exact proteins involved in the activities remain unclear. We discovered that C. elegans meiotic anaphase spindle integrity is maintained through redundant microtubule crosslinking activities of the Kinesin-5 family motor BMK-1, the microtubule bundling protein SPD-1/PRC1, and the Kinesin-4 family motor, KLP-19. Using time-lapse imaging, we found that single depletion of KLP-19KIF4A, SPD-1PRC1 or BMK-1Eg5 had minimal effects on anaphase B spindle elongation velocity. In contrast, double depletion of SPD-1PRC1 and BMK-1Eg5 or double depletion of KLP-19KIF4A and BMK-1Eg5 resulted in spindles that elongated faster, bent in a myosin-dependent manner, and had a high rate of polar body extrusion errors. Bending spindles frequently extruded both sets of segregating chromosomes into two separate polar bodies. Normal anaphase B velocity was observed after double depletion of KLP-19KIF4A and SPD-1PRC1. These results suggest that KLP-19KIF4A and SPD-1PRC1 act in different pathways, each redundant with a separate BMK-1Eg5 pathway in regulating meiotic spindle elongation. Depletion of ZYG-8, a doublecortin-related microtubule binding protein, led to slower anaphase B spindle elongation. We found that ZYG-8DCLK1 acts by excluding SPD-1PRC1 from the spindle. Thus, three mechanistically distinct microtubule regulation modules, two based on crosslinking, and one based on exclusion of crosslinkers, power the mechanism that drives spindle elongation and structural integrity during anaphase B of C.elegans female meiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhe Li
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Helena A. Crellin
- Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology & Institute of Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Dhanya Cheerambathur
- Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology & Institute of Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Francis J. McNally
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
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Chang S, Li L, Hong B, Liu J, Xu Y, Pang K, Zhang L, Han H, Chen X. An intelligent workflow for sub-nanoscale 3D reconstruction of intact synapses from serial section electron tomography. BMC Biol 2023; 21:198. [PMID: 37743470 PMCID: PMC10519085 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01696-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As an extension of electron tomography (ET), serial section electron tomography (serial section ET) aims to align the tomographic images of multiple thick tissue sections together, to break through the volume limitation of the single section and preserve the sub-nanoscale voxel size. It could be applied to reconstruct the intact synapse, which expands about one micrometer and contains nanoscale vesicles. However, there are several drawbacks of the existing serial section ET methods. First, locating and imaging regions of interest (ROIs) in serial sections during the shooting process is time-consuming. Second, the alignment of ET volumes is difficult due to the missing information caused by section cutting and imaging. Here we report a workflow to simplify the acquisition of ROIs in serial sections, automatically align the volume of serial section ET, and semi-automatically reconstruct the target synaptic structure. RESULTS We propose an intelligent workflow to reconstruct the intact synapse with sub-nanometer voxel size. Our workflow includes rapid localization of ROIs in serial sections, automatic alignment, restoration, assembly of serial ET volumes, and semi-automatic target structure segmentation. For the localization and acquisition of ROIs in serial sections, we use affine transformations to calculate their approximate position based on their relative location in orderly placed sections. For the alignment of consecutive ET volumes with significantly distinct appearances, we use multi-scale image feature matching and the elastic with belief propagation (BP-Elastic) algorithm to align them from coarse to fine. For the restoration of the missing information in ET, we first estimate the number of lost images based on the pixel changes of adjacent volumes after alignment. Then, we present a missing information generation network that is appropriate for small-sample of ET volume using pre-training interpolation network and distillation learning. And we use it to generate the missing information to achieve the whole volume reconstruction. For the reconstruction of synaptic ultrastructures, we use a 3D neural network to obtain them quickly. In summary, our workflow can quickly locate and acquire ROIs in serial sections, automatically align, restore, assemble serial sections, and obtain the complete segmentation result of the target structure with minimal manual manipulation. Multiple intact synapses in wild-type rat were reconstructed at a voxel size of 0.664 nm/voxel to demonstrate the effectiveness of our workflow. CONCLUSIONS Our workflow contributes to obtaining intact synaptic structures at the sub-nanometer scale through serial section ET, which contains rapid ROI locating, automatic alignment, volume reconstruction, and semi-automatic synapse reconstruction. We have open-sourced the relevant code in our workflow, so it is easy to apply it to other labs and obtain complete 3D ultrastructures which size is similar to intact synapses with sub-nanometer voxel size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Chang
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Multimodal Artificial Intelligence Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Linlin Li
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Bei Hong
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxuan Xu
- School of Software and Microelectronics, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
| | - Keliang Pang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Lina Zhang
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Hua Han
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Multimodal Artificial Intelligence Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, China.
| | - Xi Chen
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
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Pitayu-Nugroho L, Aubry M, Laband K, Geoffroy H, Ganeswaran T, Primadhanty A, Canman JC, Dumont J. Kinetochore component function in C. elegans oocytes revealed by 4D tracking of holocentric chromosomes. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4032. [PMID: 37419936 PMCID: PMC10329006 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39702-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
During cell division, chromosome congression to the spindle center, their orientation along the spindle long axis and alignment at the metaphase plate depend on interactions between spindle microtubules and kinetochores, and are pre-requisite for chromosome bi-orientation and accurate segregation. How these successive phases are controlled during oocyte meiosis remains elusive. Here we provide 4D live imaging during the first meiotic division in C. elegans oocytes with wild-type or disrupted kinetochore protein function. We show that, unlike in monocentric organisms, holocentric chromosome bi-orientation is not strictly required for accurate chromosome segregation. Instead, we propose a model in which initial kinetochore-localized BHC module (comprised of BUB-1Bub1, HCP-1/2CENP-F and CLS-2CLASP)-dependent pushing acts redundantly with Ndc80 complex-mediated pulling for accurate chromosome segregation in meiosis. In absence of both mechanisms, homologous chromosomes tend to co-segregate in anaphase, especially when initially mis-oriented. Our results highlight how different kinetochore components cooperate to promote accurate holocentric chromosome segregation in oocytes of C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mélanie Aubry
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Kimberley Laband
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Hélène Geoffroy
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Julie C Canman
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Julien Dumont
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013, Paris, France.
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7
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Three-dimensional SEM, TEM, and STEM for analysis of large-scale biological systems. Histochem Cell Biol 2022; 158:203-211. [PMID: 35829815 PMCID: PMC9399040 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-022-02117-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A major aim in structural cell biology is to analyze intact cells in three dimensions, visualize subcellular structures, and even localize proteins at the best possible resolution in three dimensions. Though recently developed electron microscopy tools such as electron tomography, or three-dimensional (3D) scanning electron microscopy, offer great resolution in three dimensions, the challenge is that, the better the resolution, usually the smaller the volume under investigation. Several different approaches to overcome this challenge were presented at the Microscopy Conference in Vienna in 2021. These tools include array tomography, batch tomography, or scanning transmission electron tomography, all of which can nowadays be extended toward correlative light and electron tomography, with greatly increased 3D information. Here, we review these tools, describe the underlying procedures, and discuss their advantages and limits.
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8
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Shah P, Bao Z, Zaidel-Bar R. Visualizing and quantifying molecular and cellular processes in C. elegans using light microscopy. Genetics 2022; 221:6619563. [PMID: 35766819 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyac068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Light microscopes are the cell and developmental biologists' "best friend", providing a means to see structures and follow dynamics from the protein to the organism level. A huge advantage of C. elegans as a model organism is its transparency, which coupled with its small size means that nearly every biological process can be observed and measured with the appropriate probe and light microscope. Continuous improvement in microscope technologies along with novel genome editing techniques to create transgenic probes have facilitated the development and implementation of a dizzying array of methods for imaging worm embryos, larvae and adults. In this review we provide an overview of the molecular and cellular processes that can be visualized in living worms using light microscopy. A partial inventory of fluorescent probes and techniques successfully used in worms to image the dynamics of cells, organelles, DNA, and protein localization and activity is followed by a practical guide to choosing between various imaging modalities, including widefield, confocal, lightsheet, and structured illumination microscopy. Finally, we discuss the available tools and approaches, including machine learning, for quantitative image analysis tasks, such as colocalization, segmentation, object tracking, and lineage tracing. Hopefully, this review will inspire worm researchers who have not yet imaged their worms to begin, and push those who are imaging to go faster, finer, and longer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavak Shah
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles 90095, USA
| | - Zhirong Bao
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Ronen Zaidel-Bar
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
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9
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Lindow N, Brünig FN, Dercksen VJ, Fabig G, Kiewisz R, Redemann S, Müller-Reichert T, Prohaska S, Baum D. Semi-automatic stitching of filamentous structures in image stacks from serial-section electron tomography. J Microsc 2021; 284:25-44. [PMID: 34110027 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We present a software-assisted workflow for the alignment and matching of filamentous structures across a three-dimensional (3D) stack of serial images. This is achieved by combining automatic methods, visual validation, and interactive correction. After the computation of an initial automatic matching, the user can continuously improve the result by interactively correcting landmarks or matches of filaments. Supported by a visual quality assessment of regions that have been already inspected, this allows a trade-off between quality and manual labour. The software tool was developed in an interdisciplinary collaboration between computer scientists and cell biologists to investigate cell division by quantitative 3D analysis of microtubules (MTs) in both mitotic and meiotic spindles. For this, each spindle is cut into a series of semi-thick physical sections, of which electron tomograms are acquired. The serial tomograms are then stitched and non-rigidly aligned to allow tracing and connecting of MTs across tomogram boundaries. In practice, automatic stitching alone provides only an incomplete solution, because large physical distortions and a low signal-to-noise ratio often cause experimental difficulties. To derive 3D models of spindles despite dealing with imperfect data related to sample preparation and subsequent data collection, semi-automatic validation and correction is required to remove stitching mistakes. However, due to the large number of MTs in spindles (up to 30k) and their resulting dense spatial arrangement, a naive inspection of each MT is too time-consuming. Furthermore, an interactive visualisation of the full image stack is hampered by the size of the data (up to 100 GB). Here, we present a specialised, interactive, semi-automatic solution that considers all requirements for large-scale stitching of filamentous structures in serial-section image stacks. To the best of our knowledge, it is the only currently available tool which is able to process data of the type and size presented here. The key to our solution is a careful design of the visualisation and interaction tools for each processing step to guarantee real-time response, and an optimised workflow that efficiently guides the user through datasets. The final solution presented here is the result of an iterative process with tight feedback loops between the involved computer scientists and cell biologists. LAY DESCRIPTION: Electron tomography of biological samples is used for a three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of filamentous structures, such as microtubules (MTs) in mitotic and meiotic spindles. Large-scale electron tomography can be applied to increase the reconstructed volume for the visualisation of full spindles. For this, each spindle is cut into a series of semi-thick physical sections, from which electron tomograms are acquired. The serial tomograms are then stitched and non-rigidly aligned to allow tracing and connecting of MTs across tomogram boundaries. Previously, we presented fully automatic approaches for this 3D reconstruction pipeline. However, large volumes often suffer from imperfections (ie physical distortions) caused by the image acquisition process, making it difficult to apply fully automatic approaches for matching and stitching of numerous tomograms. Therefore, we developed an interactive, semi-automatic solution that considers all requirements for large-scale stitching of microtubules in image stacks of consecutive sections. We achieved this by combining automatic methods, visual validation and interactive error correction, thus allowing the user to continuously improve the result by interactively correcting landmarks or matches of filaments. We present large-scale reconstructions of spindles in which the automatic workflow failed and where different steps of manual corrections were needed. Our approach is also applicable to other biological samples showing 3D distributions of MTs in a number of different cellular contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Lindow
- Department of Visual and Data-Centric Computing, Zuse Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian N Brünig
- Department of Visual and Data-Centric Computing, Zuse Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vincent J Dercksen
- Department of Visual and Data-Centric Computing, Zuse Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gunar Fabig
- Experimental Center, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Robert Kiewisz
- Experimental Center, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefanie Redemann
- School of Medicine, Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.,School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.,School of Medicine, Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Thomas Müller-Reichert
- Experimental Center, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Steffen Prohaska
- Department of Visual and Data-Centric Computing, Zuse Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Baum
- Department of Visual and Data-Centric Computing, Zuse Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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