Neutering of cats and dogs in Ireland; pet owner self-reported perceptions of enabling and disabling factors in the decision to neuter

Association of Socioeconomic Status and Reasons for Companion Animal Relinquishment

It is important to understand the reasons for companion animal relinquishment to help reduce the financial and ethical problems arising from too many dogs and cats in shelters. This study investigates the socioeconomic factors and reasons behind companion animal relinquishment in Australia, utilizing data from five animal shelters, over a five-year period (Financial Year 2018/19 to 2022/23). Descriptive statistics reveal that the median Index of Relative Socio-Economic Advantage and Disadvantage (IRSAD) decile of companion animal guardians who relinquished their companion animal was decile 4 out of 10, indicating that they live in areas of lower-than-average socioeconomic status. Cats accounted for 59.4% and dogs for 40.6% of all relinquishments, with more relinquishments from lower socioeconomic deciles (1-5) (cats: 62.6%, dogs: 65.8%). The median age of relinquished cats was 5 months and dogs 16 months, with human factor-related issues (e.g., Housing, Financial Constraints, Human Healthcare) cited in 86% of cases. Descriptive analysis for the five financial years shows a declining trend in numbers of relinquishments, with housing issues (31.2%) identified as the primary reason, followed by ownership decisions (16.2%), financial constraints (11.2%), and human health issues (10.4%). Comparing the reasons for relinquishment between lower (decile 1-5) and higher (decile 6-10) socioeconomic status demonstrated that financial difficulties were a more common reason in lower vs. higher socioeconomic groups, while human health and family-related issues are more common in higher vs. lower socioeconomic groups. These findings highlight the critical role of socioeconomic factors in understanding why people relinquish their companion animals, which can inform targeted interventions to support companion animal welfare across different socioeconomic backgrounds.

Spatiotemporal analysis of a population management intervention for dogs and cats in a municipality in central Mexico

Background and Aim

The overpopulation of dogs and cats has generated socioeconomic, political, and animal welfare problems, in addition to an important public health problem, due to the risk of zoonotic diseases. This study aimed to analyze the spatiotemporal coverage of canine and feline sterilization services provided by a governmental agency in the rural and urban areas of the municipality of Tequisquiapan, Querétaro.

Materials and Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted in Tequisquiapan's municipality, Querétaro, Mexico, from July 2019 to September 2022. The total number of sterilized dogs and cats was obtained from the monthly records of the Tequisquiapan Animal Health and Welfare Services Center (CESSBA, by its Spanish acronym). The collected information was related to the sterilized animals (species and sex) and their responsible guardians (sex and address). Access to dog and cat sterilization services was assessed using a geographic information system. Kernel density and directional ellipse tools were used to analyze the CESSBA coverage of care. Indicators were estimated to compare magnitudes and changes at the census tract level.

Results

A total of 4,489 animals were sterilized, with n = 2,611 (58%) dogs, of which 1,939 were female and 672 were male. The remaining n = 1,878 animals were cats, representing 42% of the total, with 1,257 females and 621 males. Up to 73% of the sterilized animals were owned by women. The population management of dogs and cats allowed us to increase the territorial coverage from 71.8% in 2019 to 92.3% in 2022. According to the temporal analysis (2019-2022), there was an annual upward trend in the number of sterilizations performed by CESSBA, with a rate of between 55.6 and 94.3 registered sterilizations per 100 inhabited dwellings and between 166.4 and 302.8 registered sterilizations per 1000 inhabitants.

Conclusion

The analysis of the dog and cat sterilization service coverage revealed an upward trend, consisting of an increase in accessibility and participation of responsible caregivers who resided in both urban and rural areas of Tequisquiapan. Although it was not possible to evaluate the impact of the program, the use of georeferenced data and geospatial analysis showed that it can support the control of animal overpopulation.

An assessment of the owned canine and feline demographics in Chile: registration, sterilization, and unsupervised roaming indicators

The global rise in companion animal populations, particularly dogs and cats, is driven by emotional and social benefits for owners, and their population management is becoming critically important to avoid a plethora of adverse effects on themselves, humans, and wildlife. We estimated the size and density of the owned canine and feline population in Chile and evaluated the status of microchipping, registration, sterilization rates, and the proportion of owned animals that roam unsupervised. A cross-sectional household survey in 36 districts was conducted and standard inferential statistics was employed to analyze differences between cats and dogs, sexes within each species, and between rural and urban areas. Additionally, two negative binomial models with mixed effects were developed to predict the number of dogs and cats per households. Two methods were used to compare population size estimates at the country level, multiplying: (1) the estimated mean number of companion animals per household by the estimated number of households at the country level, and (2) the estimated human:dog and human:cat ratios by the total human population. The study involved 6333 respondents, of which 76% (74% urban; 83% rural) owned companion animals (dogs and/or cats). Individuals in rural multi-person households increase the probability of owning dogs and/or cats. Additionally, women exhibit a greater inclination towards cat and dog ownership compared to men, while those over 30 years old demonstrate lower rates of companion animal ownership in contrast to the 18-30 age group for both species. The overall human:dog and human:cat ratios estimated were 2.7:1, and 6.2:1, respectively. The estimated total number of owned dogs and cats in Chile ranged from 9.6 to 10.7 million, depending on the methodological approach, while national median density of companion animals was 12 dogs per km2 (ranging from 0.02 to 7232) and 5 cats per km2 (ranging from 0.01 to 3242). This nationwide study showed one of the highest percentages of households with companion animals in Latin America and relatively low registration and sterilization rates, highlighting the need to strength long-term public policies to control populations of companion animals and promote responsibility in pet ownership.

Non-vaccination of dogs is linked to uncompleted COVID-19 vaccination protocols of owners

Despite the known importance of vaccines as one of the greatest achievements in medical science, vaccine hesitancy has been increasing in the last decade and has become a major threat to global health. The growth of vaccine hesitancy worldwide became more evident with the onset of COVID-19 and raised the fear that this hesitancy would also impact companion animal vaccination. This study aimed to characterize vaccine-hesitant groups regarding companion animals and human vaccinations, as well as to explore the possible association between vaccine hesitancy in pets and their owners. An anonymous online survey containing 27 closed questions was conducted, including questions about dog health, such as vaccination, neutering, and homeopathy use, as well as questions about the COVID-19 vaccination status of the owner and motivations for vaccinating or not vaccinating their pets. Most participants (81.5 %) reported receiving three or more doses of the COVID-19 vaccine. Not vaccinating against COVID-19 or having an incomplete vaccination protocol was associated with an increase in the age range of participants (odds ratio [OR] = 1.43), not having higher education (OR = 7.70), and being in extreme income ranges (less than two minimum wages [OR = 7.57] and more than 10 [OR = 5.20]). The use of homeopathy in humans (OR = 3.24) and dogs (OR = 3.74) was associated with non-vaccination against COVID-19. Owners who were not fully vaccinated against COVID-19 were almost six times more likely to not vaccinate their dogs (OR = 5.94). Non-vaccination of dogs was also associated with non-neutering (OR = 3.56), keeping the dog in contact with other dogs (OR = 2.09), and an increase in the number of dogs in the house increased the chance of not vaccinating the animals (OR = 1.30). The present study revealed a strong association between non-vaccination against COVID-19 and non-vaccination in companion dogs, raising the hypothesis that vaccination hesitancy is a growing challenge in veterinary medicine. In addition, the characteristics of Brazilians who are reluctant to be vaccinated against COVID-19 or immunize their companion animals are described here for the first time.

The Sun Also Rises: Tracing the evolution of humanistic values in anatomy pedagogy and research, including cadaveric acquisition practices

Anatomy has always been at the intersection of the socio-cultural and political landscape, where new ideas constantly replace older wisdom. From ancient Egyptians through the Greeks, and then the Romans, finally culminating into the European Renaissance-all the significant eras of human civilisation have left their insignia and distinct marks on the evolution of anatomical practices. Despite its utility as a tool for anatomy pedagogy and research that has proven its worth over millennia, cadaveric dissection has particularly been subject to political and social vicissitudes. A major debate about anatomical dissection lay with the ethical considerations, or its lack thereof, while acquiring corpses for demonstration in the dissection halls. From antiquity, anatomical dissection-often synonymous with medical studies-had typically been carried out on the dead bodies of executed criminals with certain laws, such as the Murder Act of 1752, facilitating such uses. Gradually, the uses of unclaimed bodies, resourced primarily from the impoverished sections of society, were also introduced. However, these body acquisition protocols often missed the crucial element of humanism and ethical considerations, while knowledge augmentation was taken as sufficient reasoning. Unfortunately, a gross disregard towards humanistic values promulgated heinous and illegal practices in acquiring corpses, including grave robbery and even murders like in the case of Burke and Hare murders of 1828. Follow-up legislation, such as the Anatomy Act of 1832, and comparable laws in other European nations were passed to curb the vile. What distils from such a historical discourse on humane values in anatomy dissection, or medical science in general, is that the growth and integration of humanism in anatomy have never been linear, but there were intermittent and, yet, significant disruptions in its timeline. For example, there were serious human rights violations in anatomical practices during the Third Reich in Germany that perpetrated the holocaust. The medical community has kept evolving and introducing new moral values and principles while using such egregious events as lessons, ultimately resulting in the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964. This article revisits the heterogeneous journey of integrating humanistic values in anatomy practice. Such humanistic traits that, like medical science, have also developed over centuries through the inputs of physicians, researchers, and philosophers-from Greece to modernity with an important stopgap at the Renaissance-are a fascinating lore that deserves to be re-envisioned through the lens of contemporary values and ethos. In parallel to human medicine, humanistic values continue to influence veterinary medicine, a welcome development, as our society condemns animal cruelty in any form. There are lessons to be learned from this historical journey of how humanism shaped many of the concepts that anatomists use now. Finally, and most importantly, it might prevent the medical community from repeating the same mistakes by cautioning against the traps that are there, and in a convoluted world where morality as such is eroding from our social fabric, will always be there. Such historical account acts as a righteous, ethical, and contextual compass to guide the existing and upcoming anatomists in discerning between light and dark, right and wrong, and roads-to be or not to be-taken.

The Impact of the Social Determinants of Human Health on Companion Animal Welfare

The social determinants of health (SDH) focus on the social, physical and economic factors that impact human health. Studies have revealed that animal guardians face a range of challenges in attaining positive welfare outcomes for their companion animals, which can be influenced by socioeconomic and environmental factors. Despite this, there is a lack of research specifically exploring the relationship between SDH and animal welfare outcomes. Given that the SDH impact on humans, which in turn directly impacts on their companion animal, it is important to adapt an SDH framework for companion animal welfare by characterising the impact of the SDH on companion animal guardians in their attempts to care for their animals and, by extension, the associated welfare outcomes. This paper explores how these human health determinants may impact animal welfare and the possible challenges that may arise for the guardian when attempting to meet their companion animal's welfare needs. By integrating the SDH with other key frameworks, including the five domains model of animal welfare, through multidisciplinary collaboration, this framework can be used to inform future programs aiming to improve animal welfare.

Pet Ownership in Aotearoa New Zealand: A National Survey of Cat and Dog Owner Practices

This study used an online survey distributed between January and March 2019 to adults residing in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ) to investigate cat and dog owner practices. Of the 2385 respondents, 885 (37%) owned both cat/s and dog/s, while 652 (28%) and 609 (26%) owned cat/s only or dog/s only, respectively. Nine percent of respondents (n = 212) did not own a cat or dog when the survey was administered. Gaps were identified in the practices of NZ pet owners with regard to regular grooming, immunizations, and deworming treatments. It was also found that many pets, especially cats, were allowed to wander freely both inside and outside the house. Collectively, these gaps in practice raise parasitology and infection concerns which may impact negatively on animal welfare and may increase the prevalence of zoonotic diseases. This study also revealed the need to improve desexing practices, particularly in dogs. Respondents in the survey expressed the wish to have pets regardless of the financial strain they may impose, indicating that future research should focus on reducing the financial burden of pet ownership along with promoting positive pet ownership practices. Our findings suggest the need for better education resources about pet ownership which are easily accessible and target diverse populations. The findings of this study will aid in developing appropriate educational resources to promote animal welfare and increase pet-related knowledge among the NZ populace.

What Happens in Male Dogs after Treatment with a 4.7 mg Deslorelin Implant? I. Flare up and Downregulation

Simple Summary

Until now, information about the “flare up” and the time to downregulation in male dogs after treatment with a 4.7 mg deslorelin implant is strongly limited, regarding testosterone concentrations, testicular and prostatic volume and semen quality. The aim of this study was to provide detailed insights into these open questions. GnRH and hCG stimulation tests were performed to gain further insights into testicular endocrine function. Seven male beagle dogs were treated with a 4.7 mg deslorelin implant, and three animals were treated with saline, representing the controls. In deslorelin-treated dogs, first basal testosterone concentrations were observed earliest on D7 and latest on D28 after treatment. Infertility—based on the lack of semen or spermatozoa— was diagnosed earliest on D35 and latest on D77. After five months, the treatment was still effective in six dogs but was reversed in one deslorelin-treated dog.

Abstract

Although registered since 2007, knowledge about changes in testosterone concentrations (T), testicular and prostatic volumes (TV, PV) and semen quality, as well as the time point of infertility following treatment with a 4.7 mg deslorelin (DES) slow-release implant, is limited. Therefore, seven sexually mature male dogs were treated with DES (TG); three male dogs treated with saline served as controls (CG). The study assessed local tolerance, TV, PV, semen parameters and T subsequent to GnRH/hCG stimulation in regular intervals. Local tolerance was good. In TG, T was increased right after treatment, but decreased four hours afterwards. Subsequently, TV, PV, semen quality and T decreased over time in TG, but not CG. T was basal (≤0.1 ng/mL) from D28 onwards. Response to GnRH/hCG stimulation was variable, with two TG dogs having increased T post-stimulation on all study days independent of pre-treatment concentrations. A(zoo)spermia in TG was observed from D35–D77 in all seven dogs. Whereas treatment was still effective in six TG dogs five months after implant insertion, it was fully reversed in one dog in terms of T and spermatozoa on the last examination. These results indicate high variation in individual dogs, necessary to consider when advising dog owners.

Measuring Changes in Perceptions of Access to Pet Support Care in Underserved Communities

Understanding social, economic, and structural barriers to accessing pet care services is important for improving the health and welfare of companion animals in underserved communities in the U.S. From May 2018-December 2019, six questions from the validated One Health Community Assessment were used to measure perceptions of access to pet care in two urban and two rural zip codes. One urban and one rural community received services from a pet support outreach program (Pets for Life), while the other served as a comparison community. After propensity score matching was performed to eliminate demographic bias in the sample (Urban = 512 participants, Rural = 234 participants), Generalized Estimating Equations were employed to compare the six measures of access to pet care between the intervention and comparison communities. The urban community with the Pets for Life intervention was associated with a higher overall measure of access to pet care compared to the urban site that did not have the Pets for Life intervention. When assessing each of the six measures of access to care, the urban community with the Pets for Life intervention was associated with higher access to affordable pet care options and higher access to pet care service providers who offer payment options than the community without the Pets for Life intervention. Further analyses with a subset of Pets for Life clients comparing pre-intervention and post-intervention survey responses revealed statistically significant positive trends in perceptions of two of the six measures of access to pet care. This study provides evidence that community-based animal welfare programming has the potential to increase perceptions of access to pet support services.

Age of sexual maturity and factors associated with neutering dogs in the UK and the Republic of Ireland

BACKGROUND

Surgical neutering of dogs is common, however the average age that dogs reach sexual maturity, are neutered, and dog owners' attitudes to neutering in the UK and the Republic of Ireland have not been explored in a longitudinal study.

METHODS

Owner-reported data on the timing of the first oestrus, timing of neutering and the reasons given for neutering dogs by 12 and 15 months of age were summarised. Factors associated with neutering at 15 months and factors associated with intention to neuter were quantified using multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

At 15 months of age, 90.0% (n = 207/230) of unneutered females had had their first oestrus. By 7, 9, 12 and 15 months of age, 22.1% (n = 131/593), 32.2% (197/593), 45.4% (n = 269/593) and 59.9% (n = 352/593) of dogs were neutered, respectively. Breed purity, dog's source, owners' intentions to neuter and the number of dogs in the household were associated with neuter status at age 15 months. Dog's sex, Kennel Club registration, dog's source, dogs intended to be working dogs and previous dog ownership were associated with intentions to neuter. Preventing puppies was the most common reason for neutering.

CONCLUSION

Understanding factors that shape owners' intentions to neuter can inform owner-vet discussions regarding whether to neuter a dog and the optimal age for doing so.

A Pilot Study to Develop an Assessment Tool for Dogs Undergoing Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) in Italy. An Overview on the National Implementation of TNR Programmes

Simple Summary

This paper describes the development of a tool to assess the welfare of dogs recruited in trap-neuter-release (TNR) programmes and the Italian situation involving the implementation of these programmes. The TNR approach has been proposed as an alternative to long-term sheltering to control the rising population of free-roaming dogs. The protocol was developed on the basis of a shelter quality protocol (SQP). The measures included in the protocol were integrated with other welfare indicators proposed in the scientific literature. Nine Italian regions out of 20 (all from central and southern Italy) prescribe by law the implementation of TNR programmes. A varied scenario and some critical issues related to the TNR approach for the management of the dog population emerged. The findings, although preliminary, suggest that the protocol could be a useful tool for the assessment of dog welfare.

Abstract

A descriptive analysis, inter-observer and test–retest reliability of the animal-based measures (ABMs) included in the protocol were performed. This study aimed at the development of a welfare assessment protocol for dogs recruited in the trap-neuter-release (TNR) programmes and the description of the implantation of these programmes in Italy. Nine Italian regions carried out TNR programmes. A varied scenario, along with some critical issues, emerged. Fifty dogs were recruited and assessed simultaneously by two assessors to determine the reliability of ABMs included in the protocol. A subsample of ten dogs were assessed three times to assess test–retest reliability. All females were neutered against 36% of males. Most dogs were adults (58%) and of a large size (68%). Vaccine prophylaxis and parasitic prevention were regular in 13% and 76% of dogs, respectively. Few dogs showed lameness, evidence of pain, other clinical problems, or thermal discomfort. Overall, 82% of dogs did not show fear or aggression to unfamiliar people. The level of agreement between the two assessors was quite high, ranging from substantial (0.61–0.80) to perfect (1) for the majority of measures. This study highlighted some critical issues in TNR implementation and the suitability of the protocol as a tool for animal welfare assessment.

Histopathological findings in the uteri and ovaries of clinically healthy cats presented for routine spaying

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to assess the histopathological findings in the uteri and ovaries from clinically healthy queens presented for elective spaying.

METHODS

Ovaries and distal uterine horns or complete uteri from 106 female cats were evaluated for pathological alterations.

RESULTS

Pathological alterations of the uterus and/or ovaries were evident in 29 cats; of these, corpora lutea were present on the ovaries of 15 cats. Ovarian cysts were found in 15 cats and were classified as cysts of the Wolffian or Muellerian ducts (n = 4), follicular cysts (n = 4), luteal cysts (n = 1), cystic rete ovarii (n = 2), combinations of different cysts (n = 2) and non-classifiable cysts (n = 2). In 21/106 cats, cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) was present. The incidence of CEH increased with the age of the cat. Six cats had purulent endometritis with or without distension of the uterine lumen. Hyperplastic lesions of the endometrium were detected in two cats. In one cat, a uterine horn malformation with duplication of one uterine horn lumen was diagnosed.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Whereas the majority of ovarian cysts and slight-to-moderate CEH are unlikely to interfere with an animal's wellbeing, endometritis must be considered a serious health problem that requires veterinary attention.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Agonist Implants for Male Dog Fertility Suppression: A Review of Mode of Action, Efficacy, Safety, and Uses

At present, only surgical sterilization is available for veterinarians and pet owners seeking suppression of fertility in male dogs, in most countries. An alternative contraceptive alternative approach is GnRH releasing implants that desensitize the pituitary to the stimulatory effects of GnRH and thereby block testicular function (testosterone and sperm production). Two GnRH agonists (deslorelin and azagly-nafarelin) have been researched in controlled release formulations for this purpose. A deslorelin-releasing biodegradable implant, marketed under the name Suprelorin®, has been available in Australia and New Zealand since 2007, the European Union (EU) since 2008, and received regulatory approval in China and Mexico in late 2019. Two versions of the implant are available, one labeled for a minimum of 6 months of fertility suppression in male dogs, and the other for a minimum of 12 months in male dogs. Another GnRH agonist (azagly-nafarelin) was also included in a solid implant (Gonazon®). Research results showed it delivered 6-months to 1 year of suppressed fertility; however, it is not commercialized. This review paper summarizes research on the mechanism of action for these technologies and compiles and interprets the research on efficacy and safety. New findings on usage of the deslorelin releasing implant in countries where veterinarians and pet owners have this option is shared. Research on off-label use of the product in male dogs is also reviewed. This review aims to aid in the evaluation of the deslorelin releasing implant as an adjunct or alternative for surgical sterilization of male dogs.

Strategies for the Improvement of Pet Health and Welfare in Portugal Based on a Pilot Survey on Husbandry, Opinion, and Information Needs

Simple Summary

This study examined husbandry practices in companion animals being conducted in Portugal in order to understand the health and welfare issues which can be improved. One of the more important findings is that, despite adopting most pets, pet owners do not adopt from animal shelters, possibly due to the large bureaucratic process. Veterinary practice is viewed as expensive and identification of animals with microchip is frequently disregarded. These issues may result in important threats to animal welfare and health and should be addressed at societal level. Several strategies based on results are proposed to improve pet health and welfare in Portugal, focusing on showcasing the importance of veterinary care, reducing the number of lost or abandoned animals, and improving awareness and education.

Abstract

Pets are present in half of the homes across Portugal. However, little is known about the husbandry, opinion, and information needs of Portuguese pet owners. Thus, the objective of this work was to clarify this information providing the basis for suggesting potential improvements. Responses were collected through an online survey, including inhabitants from different regions of Portugal (n = 111). Cats and dogs are the most popular pets and the majority are adopted, fed commercial diets, live indoors, are vaccinated, dewormed, and treated for external parasites, and occasionally visit the veterinary practice. Portuguese owners are interested in improving their pet’s health, and would like to learn more about welfare, health assessment, and diet from veterinarians. However, microchip and municipal registration are often overlooked. Lack of adoption from animal shelters as well as expectations over the cost of veterinary practice were other difficulties identified in this study. Strategies for the improvement of pet health and welfare in Portugal were proposed as improving the perception of the value and importance of veterinary care, reducing the number of lost and abandoned pets, and improving awareness and education. Thus, Portuguese stakeholders and authorities must take the required measures to improve these issues.

Demographics, distribution, ownership and naming patterns of pets presented to a mobile clinic for sterilisation in Namibia

This study analysed the demographics, spatial distribution, ownership and naming patterns of dogs and cats presented to the University of Namibia’s veterinary mobile clinic for sterilisation from small underserved towns around Namibia. The proportional distribution of pets was determined based on species, sex, age, owner gender, town of origin and naming categories. Overall, 84.4% (n = 2909) of the animals presented for sterilisation were dogs and the remainder were cats (15.6%, n = 539). Of the dogs presented for sterilisation, 51.9% (n = 1509) were male and 48.1% (n = 1400) were female. In cats, 51.4% (n = 277) were male, whilst 48.6% (n = 262) were female. Overall, the majority of pets (68.2%) were presented for sterilisation from urban areas than rural areas (31.8%). About 49.8% of men and 24.2% of women that presented pets for sterilisation came from urban areas, whilst 20.1% of the women and 11.7% of the men that presented pets for sterilisation were from rural areas. Of all the pets presented for sterilisation, the majority were male-owned (64%, n = 2206). Pets were mainly presented for sterilisation at < 2 years (41.1%), 2 to < 4 years (32.4%) and 4 to < 6 years (15.4%). The naming of pets was mainly after people (42.4%), circumstances (20.6%) and appearance (15.5%). This community engagement exercise yielded valuable demographic data indicating that pet origin, sex and species and owner gender were important factors in determining the voluntary presentation of pets for sterilisation in the study area.

Possible Relationship between Long-Term Adverse Health Effects of Gonad-Removing Surgical Sterilization and Luteinizing Hormone in Dogs

Spaying and neutering dogs is commonly used to prevent the birth of unwanted animals and eliminate the risk of reproductive diseases. However, removal of the gonads prevents the feedback of estrogen and testosterone on the pituitary and hypothalamus. As a result, luteinizing hormone (LH) is continuously elevated at supraphysiologic concentrations. Although the main role of LH is for reproductive function (e.g., ovulation), there are LH receptors present in several normal tissues including the thyroid and adrenal glands, gastrointestinal tract, cranial cruciate ligament and round ligament, and lymphocytes. In addition, there are LH receptors present in several neoplastic tissues (e.g., lymphoma, hemangiosarcoma, mastocytoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and osteosarcoma). The role of LH receptors in non-reproductive normal and neoplastic tissues is not known but may stimulate nitric oxide release and induce cell division. The precise etiology of the increased incidence of several non-reproductive long-term health complications following spaying and neutering is not known but may be related to LH receptor activation in these non-reproductive target tissues. How these effects may be mediated is described in this review.

Desexing Dogs: A Review of the Current Literature

Background: Desexing dogs is promoted for population control, preventative healthcare, and behavior modification. Common methods are orchiectomy and ovariectomy/ovariohysterectomy. GnRH superagonist implants are available in some areas. Alternative methods like vasectomy and salpingectomy/hysterectomy are uncommon. The terminology used to describe desexing is inconsistent and contradictory, showing a need for the adaption of standardized terminology. Population Control: Surprisingly, empirical studies show no effects of desexing on population control in companion and shelter dogs despite desexing being consistently recommended in the literature. There is evidence for a population control effect in free-roaming dogs, where desexing also has benefits on zoonotic disease and bite risk. Population control in free-roaming dogs is mostly correlated with female, not male desexing. Health and Lifespan: Desexing affects numerous disease risks, but studies commonly neglect age at diagnosis and overall lifespan, age being by far the most important risk factor for most diseases. We argue that lifespan is a more important outcome than ultimate cause of death. A beneficial effect of desexing on lifespan is consistently demonstrated in females, while evidence for a beneficial effect in males is inconsistent. Studies are likely biased in desexing being a proxy for better care and desexed dogs having already lived to the age of desexing. Desexing reduces or eliminates common life-limiting diseases of the female reproductive system such as pyometra and mammary tumors, while no analogous effect exists in males. Disease risks increases across sexes and breeds include cruciate ligament rupture, various cancers, and obesity. Urinary incontinence risk is increased in females only. Various other disease risk changes show considerable variability between breeds and sexes. Behavioral Effects: Desexed males show reduced libido, roaming, conspecific mounting, and urinary marking frequency, as well as reduced male dog-directed aggression in a majority of males desexed for behavioral reasons. There is a detrimental effect on the risk and progression of age-related cognitive dysfunction. Desexed dogs may be less likely to cause bite injuries across sexes. The evidence for other effects such as human-directed aggression, human or object mounting, resource guarding, or shyness and anxiety is inconsistent and contradictory. There are few studies specific to females or individual breeds. Conclusions: The evidence for a beneficial effect of desexing is stronger in female than in male dogs; however, there is significant variation between breeds and sexes, and more research is needed to further elucidate these differences and to arrive at individualized evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice.

Throwing the Baby Out With the Bath Water: Could Widespread Neutering of Companion Dogs Cause Problems at a Population Level?

In many countries where companion dogs are popular, owners are strongly encouraged to neuter their dogs. Consequently, millions of dogs are neutered each year. In recent times considerable attention has been paid to the possible effects of such procedures on canine health and welfare. Less scrutinized are the potential ramifications of widespread neutering on the breeding of dogs and their continued success as human companions. This paper summarizes research investigating factors influencing the breeding and rearing of dogs most suited to companionship roles in contemporary, typically high-density, communities, and briefly reviews current breeder practices. It then argues that a fundamental shift to promote inclusion of “proven” companion dogs in the gene pool, as opposed to dogs meeting conformation or working/sporting standards, is required to successfully meet the needs of modern urban dog owners. A new model is proposed, whereby responsible owners and breeders work together to produce dogs most suited for life as human companions.

The Views of the UK Public Towards Routine Neutering of Dogs and Cats

Despite being routinely recommended by veterinarians, neutering of dogs and cats has both positive and negative impacts on animal welfare and is ethically problematic. We examined attitudes of a sample of the UK public towards routine neutering of dogs and cats using a questionnaire. Respondents indicated their level of agreement with statements describing welfare and ethical reasons 'for' and 'against' the neutering of male and female dogs and cats. We conducted a general linear model (GLM) analysis to investigate the effects of demographic factors on agreement scores. Respondents (n = 451) expressed views both supporting and opposing neutering. The predominant view (>80%) supported neutering, justified primarily by prevention of unwanted offspring and reproductive diseases. Around 10% of the respondents disagreed and felt that neutering should only be done for medical reasons. Men were less likely than women to support neutering (p < 0.001). Those with meat reduction diets were more likely to be against neutering (p < 0.05) and cat owners supported neutering more than non-cat owners (p < 0.05). Although the data reflected a wide range of ethical views, our findings show that the UK public generally supports the routine neutering of dogs and cats. This insight has implications for future policy-making and compliance with veterinary advice.

Miniature Schnauzers under primary veterinary care in the UK in 2013: demography, mortality and disorders

BACKGROUND

Individual dog breeds are often reported as predisposed to specific breed-related disorders but reliable epidemiological data on disease prevalence are sparse. The Miniature Schnauzer in the UK is a popular small breed dog that is often considered as relatively healthy and long-lived, but is this really true? This study aimed to use data from the VetCompass™ Programme at the Royal Veterinary College to characterise the demography, mortality and common disorders of the general population of Miniature Schnauzers under veterinary care in the UK.

RESULTS

The study population of 455,557 dogs from 304 clinics in the VetCompass™ database under veterinary care during 2013 included 3857 Miniature Schnauzers (0.85%). For dogs with data available, 1771 (56.9%) were neutered and 1893 (49.2%) were females. Mean adult bodyweight overall was 9.9 kg (SD 2.2 kg) and median longevity was 11.6 years (IQR 9.3-13.1, range 0.5-17.0). The most prevalent fine-level precision disorders recorded were periodontal disease (n = 343, prevalence 17.4, 95% CI: 15.7-19.1), obesity/overweight (164, 8.3, 95% CI: 7.1-9.6), anal sac impaction (114, 5.8, 95% CI: 4.8-6.9), vomiting (100, 5.1, 95% CI% 4.1-6.1) and otitis externa (99, 5.0, 95% CI% 4.1-6.1). The most prevalent grouped-level precision disorders were dental (n = 378, prevalence: 19.2, 95% CI: 17.5-21.0), enteropathy (270, 13.7, 95% CI: 12.2-15.3), cutaneous (250, 12.7, 95% CI: 11.2-14.2) and aural (197, 10.0, 95% CI: 8.7-11.4).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides generalisable evidence on the demography, longevity and most prevalent disorders in the Miniature Schnauzer breed in the UK. Awareness of common diseases and breed predispositions can support evidence-based policies to improve breed health, guide veterinary surgeons when producing differential diagnosis lists, and assist owners when purchasing or caring for their pets.

Understanding the context for pet cat and dog feeding and exercising behaviour among pet owners in Ireland: a qualitative study

Background

Pet cat and dog obesity contributes to increased risk of several diseases, including cancer and diabetes mellitus as well as a worsening of orthopaedic problems, and a reduction in survival rate. This study aims to develop a better understanding of cat and dog owners’ self-reported beliefs and factors that influence owner behaviour around feeding and exercising their pet cat or dog, as there is a lack of in-depth understanding in this area. Seven focus group discussions, with 43 pet owners in total, were conducted.

Results

Pet owners often reported a perceived a low level of control over feeding; often undermined by other people feeding of their pet, their pets begging for food, and their pets attitude towards food. Treats were used in the absence of owner control over pet begging and emotional attachment, and to influence pet behaviour. The majority of participants had positive attitudes to pet exercise, which could be related to pet specific requirements, especially differences in cats and dogs. There were some negative experiences of stress associated with dog walking and fears over aggressive confrontations with other dogs.

Conclusion

Feeding one’s pet is influenced by beliefs about pet specific needs, pet food and pet health, pet owners’ perceived control over feeding, and the implications for the pet owner. Pet exercise is influenced by beliefs about pet specific exercise needs, and the implications of exercising one’s pet for the pet owner. Understanding owner behaviours on feeding and exercise allows for a more targeted approach to preventing and treating pet obesity.

Mandatory desexing of dogs: one step in the right direction to reduce the risk of dog bite? A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Preventing dog bites is an intractable problem given the complex dog bite injury environment. Desexing of dogs has the opportunity of creating a safer injury environment, given the potential links between desexing and behaviour change in dogs.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted to examine the evidence for desexing of dogs to reduce dog bite risk within a population health paradigm. Medline and CAB Abstracts were searched for studies that reported data on the association of dog neuter status with the risk of dog bite. All definitions of dog bite were included and all empirical studies were included in the review, limited to those published in English. Quality appraisal and data extraction were based on the 2013 evidence-based practice and critical appraisal tool from the University of Auckland.

RESULTS

Five out of six observational studies, from four study populations found evidence that intact dogs were associated with an increased risk of dog bite compared with desexed dogs. The effect sizes ranged across the studies and given the heterogeneity of the studies no single effect size on the association between desexing and dog bite risk could be estimated.

CONCLUSIONS

There is consistent evidence that desexing dogs is associated with a reduced risk of dog bite, although the studies reflect association and may not be causal. Although recent publications have suggested desexing is associated with health and behavioural costs in some breeds, population level evidence supports desexed dogs having a longer lifespan, and being less likely to wander with the added benefit of reducing unwanted litters. Thus, mandatory desexing presents a possible opportunity for prevention of dog bites expanding dog bite prevention beyond an education-only approach.

RNA-seq of human reference RNA samples using a thermostable group II intron reverse transcriptase

Next-generation RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) has revolutionized our ability to analyze transcriptomes. Current RNA-seq methods are highly reproducible, but each has biases resulting from different modes of RNA sample preparation, reverse transcription, and adapter addition, leading to variability between methods. Moreover, the transcriptome cannot be profiled comprehensively because highly structured RNAs, such as tRNAs and snoRNAs, are refractory to conventional RNA-seq methods. Recently, we developed a new method for strand-specific RNA-seq using thermostable group II intron reverse transcriptases (TGIRTs). TGIRT enzymes have higher processivity and fidelity than conventional retroviral reverse transcriptases plus a novel template-switching activity that enables RNA-seq adapter addition during cDNA synthesis without using RNA ligase. Here, we obtained TGIRT-seq data sets for well-characterized human RNA reference samples and compared them to previous data sets obtained for these RNAs by the Illumina TruSeq v2 and v3 methods. We find that TGIRT-seq recapitulates the relative abundance of human transcripts and RNA spike-ins in ribo-depleted, fragmented RNA samples comparably to non-strand-specific TruSeq v2 and better than strand-specific TruSeq v3. Moreover, TGIRT-seq is more strand specific than TruSeq v3 and eliminates sampling biases from random hexamer priming, which are inherent to TruSeq. The TGIRT-seq data sets also show more uniform 5' to 3' gene coverage and identify more splice junctions, particularly near the 5' ends of mRNAs, than do the TruSeq data sets. Finally, TGIRT-seq enables the simultaneous profiling of mRNAs and lncRNAs in the same RNA-seq experiment as structured small ncRNAs, including tRNAs, which are essentially absent with TruSeq.

Identification of high-efficiency 3'GG gRNA motifs in indexed FASTA files with ngg2

CRISPR/Cas9 is emerging as one of the most-used methods of genome modification in organisms ranging from bacteria to human cells. However, the efficiency of editing varies tremendously site-to-site. A recent report identified a novel motif, called the 3'GG motif, which substantially increases the efficiency of editing at all sites tested in C. elegans. Furthermore, they highlighted that previously published gRNAs with high editing efficiency also had this motif. I designed a python command-line tool, ngg2, to identify 3'GG gRNA sites from indexed FASTA files. As a proof-of-concept, I screened for these motifs in six model genomes: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Danio rerio, Mus musculus, and Homo sapiens. I also scanned the genomes of pig (Sus scrofa) and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) to demonstrate the utility in non-model organisms. I identified more than 60 million single match 3'GG motifs in these genomes. Greater than 61% of all protein coding genes in the reference genomes had at least one unique 3'GG gRNA site overlapping an exon. In particular, more than 96% of mouse and 93% of human protein coding genes have at least one unique, overlapping 3'GG gRNA. These identified sites can be used as a starting point in gRNA selection, and the ngg2 tool provides an important ability to identify 3'GG editing sites in any species with an available genome sequence.

Methods of fertility control in cats: Owner, breeder and veterinarian behavior and attitudes

OVERVIEW

Fertility control is important for population management of owned and unowned cats, provides health benefits at the individual level and can reduce unwanted sexually dimorphic behaviors such as roaming, aggression, spraying and calling. This article reviews the available evidence regarding European and American veterinarian, owner and pedigree cat breeder attitudes toward both surgical sterilization and non-surgical fertility control. It additionally presents new data on veterinarians' and pedigree cat breeders' use of, and attitudes toward, alternative modalities of fertility control.

PROPORTION OF CATS THAT ARE NEUTERED

Within the United States and Europe, the proportion of cats reported to be sterilized varies widely. Published estimates range from 27-93% for owned cats and 2-5% for cats trapped as part of a trap-neuter-return (TNR) program. In some regions and populations of cats, non-surgical fertility control is also used. Social context, cultural norms, individual preferences, economic considerations, legislation and professional organizations may all influence fertility control decisions for cats.

NON-SURGICAL METHODS OF FERTILITY CONTROL

Particularly in Europe, a limited number of non-surgical temporary contraceptives are available for cats; these include products with regulatory approval for cats as well as some used 'off label'. Non-surgical methods remove the risk of complications related to surgery and offer potential to treat more animals in less time and at lower cost; they may also appeal to pedigree cat breeders seeking temporary contraception. However, concerns over efficacy, delivery methods, target species safety, duration and side effects exist with current non-surgical options. Research is under way to develop new methods to control fertility in cats without surgery. US and European veterinarians place high value on three perceived benefits of surgical sterilization: permanence, behavioral benefits and health benefits. Non-surgical options will likely need to share these benefits to be widely accepted by the veterinary community.