Theranostic nanoplatforms for simultaneous cancer imaging and therapy: current approaches and future perspectives

Iridium(III) complexes decorated with silicane-modified rhodamine: near-infrared light-initiated photosensitizers for efficient deep-tissue penetration photodynamic therapy

Meeting the demand for efficient photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT), a series of iridium(III) complexes decorated with silicane-modified rhodamine (Si-rhodamine) was meticulously designed and synthesized. These complexes demonstrate exceptional PDT potential owing to their strong absorption in the near-infrared (NIR) spectrum, particularly responsive to 808 nm laser stimulation. This feature is pivotal, enabling deep-penetration laser excitation and overcoming depth-related challenges in clinical PDT applications. The molecular structures of these complexes allow for reliable tuning of singlet oxygen generation with NIR excitation, through modification of the cyclometalating ligand. Notably, one of the complexes (4) exhibits a remarkable ROS quantum yield of 0.69. In vivo results underscore the efficacy of 4, showcasing significant tumor regression at depths of up to 8.4 mm. This study introduces a promising paradigm for designing photosensitizers capable of harnessing NIR light effectively for deep PDT applications.

Self-Monitoring Theranostic Nanomaterials: Emerging Visual Agents for Real-Time Monitoring of Tumor Treatment Processes

Self-monitoring in tumor therapy is a concept that allows for real-time monitoring of the location and state of applied nanomaterials. This monitoring relies on dynamic signals, such as wave or magnetic signals, which vary in response to changes in the location and state of nanomaterials. Dynamic changes in nanomaterials can be monitored using dynamic signals, making it possible to determine and control the treatment process. Theranostic nanomaterials, which possess unique physical and chemical properties, have recently been explored as a viable option for self-monitoring. With the help of self-monitoring, theranostic nanomaterials can guide themselves to achieve region-selective treatment with higher controllability and safety. In this review, self-monitoring theranostic nanomaterials will be introduced in three parts according to their roles during therapy: tumor accumulation, tumor therapy, and metabolism. The limitations and future challenges of current self-monitoring theranostic nanomaterials will also be discussed.

Theranostic imaging and multimodal photodynamic therapy and immunotherapy using the mTOR signaling pathway

Tumor metastases are considered the leading cause of cancer-associated deaths. While clinically applied drugs have demonstrated to efficiently remove the primary tumor, metastases remain poorly accessible. To overcome this limitation, herein, the development of a theranostic nanomaterial by incorporating a chromophore for imaging and a photosensitizer for treatment of metastatic tumor sites is presented. The mechanism of action reveals that the nanoparticles are able to intervene by local generation of cellular damage through photodynamic therapy as well as by systemic induction of an immune response by immunotherapy upon inhibition of the mTOR signaling pathway which is of crucial importance for tumor onset, progression and metastatic spreading. The nanomaterial is able to strongly reduce the volume of the primary tumor as well as eradicates tumor metastases in a metastatic breast cancer and a multi-drug resistant patient-derived hepatocellular carcinoma models in female mice.

Transition Metal-Based Therapies for Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammatory disease (ID) is a general term that covers all diseases in which chronic inflammation performs as the major manifestation of pathogenesis. Traditional therapies based on the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs are palliative with the short-term remission. The emergence of nanodrugs has been reported to solve the potential causes and prevent recurrences, thus holding great potential for the treatment of IDs. Among various nanomaterial systems, transition metal-based smart nanosystems (TMSNs) with unique electronic structures possess therapeutic advantages owing to their large surface area to volume ratio, high photothermal conversion efficiency, X-ray absorption capacity, and multiple catalytic enzyme activities. In this review, the rationale, design principle, and therapeutic mechanisms of TMSNs for treatments of various IDs are summarized. Specifically, TMSNs can not only be designed to scavenge danger signals, such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and cell-free DNA, but also can be engineered to block the mechanism of initiating inflammatory responses. In addition, TMSNs can be further applied as nanocarriers to deliver anti-inflammatory drugs. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of TMSNs are discussed, and the future directions of TMSN-based ID treatment for clinical applications are emphasized.

Liposome encapsulated anticancer drugs on autophagy in cancer cells - current and future perspective

Autophagy act as a double-edged sword in cancer with both tumor promoting and inhibiting roles. Under normal conditions of autophagy, the damaged cell organelles and other debris degrade inside the lysosome to provide energy and macromolecular precursors. However, enhanced autophagy can lead to apoptosis and programmed cell death highlighting its significance in cancer therapy. Liposome-based drug delivery systems for treating cancer patients have significant advantages over their non-formulated or free drug counterparts which could be effectively used to manipulate autophagy pathway in cancer patients. In the current review, drug uptake by the cells and its role in autophagy-mediated cancer cell death are discussed. Besides, the challenges and translational difficulties associated with the use of liposome-based chemotherapeutic drugs in clinical trials and in biomedical applications are also discussed.

A snapshot of the vast array of diamagnetic CEST MRI contrast agents

Since the inception of CEST MRI in the 1990s, a number of compounds have been identified as suitable for generating contrast, including paramagnetic lanthanide complexes, hyperpolarized atom cages and, most interesting, diamagnetic compounds. In the past two decades, there has been a major emphasis in this field on the identification and application of diamagnetic compounds that have suitable biosafety profiles for usage in medical applications. Even in the past five years there has been a tremendous growth in their numbers, with more and more emphasis being placed on finding those that can be ultimately used for patient studies on clinical 3 T scanners. At this point, a number of endogenous compounds present in tissue have been identified, and also natural and synthetic organic compounds that can be administered to highlight pathology via CEST imaging. Here we will provide a very extensive snapshot of the types of diamagnetic compound that can generate CEST MRI contrast, together with guidance on their utility on typical preclinical and clinical scanners and a review of the applications that might benefit the most from this new technology.

Preparation of Water-Soluble Polyion Complex (PIC) Micelles with Random Copolymers Containing Pendant Quaternary Ammonium and Sulfonate Groups

Cationic random copolymers (PCm) consisting of 2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC; P) with methacroylcholine chloride (MCC; C) and anionic random copolymers (PSn) consisting of MPC and potassium 3-(methacryloyloxy)propanesulfonate (MPS; S) were prepared via a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer method. "m" and "n" represent the compositions (mol %) of the MCC and MPS units in the copolymers, respectively. The degrees of polymerization for the copolymers were 93-99. Water-soluble MPC unit contains a pendant zwitterionic phosphorylcholine group whose charges are neutralized in pendant groups. MCC and MPS units contain the cationic quaternary ammonium and anionic sulfonate groups, respectively. The stoichiometrically charge-neutralized mixture of a matched pair of PCm and PSn aqueous solutions resulted in the spontaneous formation of water-soluble PCm/PSn polyion complex (PIC) micelles. These PIC micelles have the MPC-rich surface and MCC/MPS core. These PIC micelles were characterized using ¹H NMR, dynamic and static light scattering, and transmission electron microscopic measurements. The hydrodynamic radius of these PIC micelles depends on the mixing ratio of the oppositely charged random copolymers. The charge-neutralized mixture formed maximum-size PIC micelles.

Molecular Pathways Implicated in Radioresistance of Glioblastoma Multiforme: What Is the Role of Extracellular Vesicles?

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a primary brain tumor that is very aggressive, resistant to treatment, and characterized by a high degree of anaplasia and proliferation. Routine treatment includes ablative surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. However, GMB rapidly relapses and develops radioresistance. Here, we briefly review the mechanisms underpinning radioresistance and discuss research to stop it and install anti-tumor defenses. Factors that participate in radioresistance are varied and include stem cells, tumor heterogeneity, tumor microenvironment, hypoxia, metabolic reprogramming, the chaperone system, non-coding RNAs, DNA repair, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). We direct our attention toward EVs because they are emerging as promising candidates as diagnostic and prognostication tools and as the basis for developing nanodevices for delivering anti-cancer agents directly into the tumor mass. EVs are relatively easy to obtain and manipulate to endow them with the desired anti-cancer properties and to administer them using minimally invasive procedures. Thus, isolating EVs from a GBM patient, supplying them with the necessary anti-cancer agent and the capability of recognizing a specified tissue-cell target, and reinjecting them into the original donor appears, at this time, as a reachable objective of personalized medicine.

Cu-In-S/ZnS:Gd3+ quantum dots with isolated fluorescent and paramagnetic modules for dual-modality imaging in vivo

Gd³⁺-doped quantum dots (QDs) have been widely used as small-sized bifunctional contrast agents for fluorescence/magnetic resonance (FL/MR) dual-modality imaging. However, Gd³⁺ doping will always compromise the FL of host QDs. Therefore, balancing the Gd³⁺ doping and the optical properties of QDs is crucial for constructing high-performance bifunctional nanoprobes. Additionally, most paramagnetic QDs are synthesized in the organic phase and need to be transferred to the aqueous phase for bioimaging. Herein, ingeniously designed shell-doped Cu-In-S/ZnS:Gd³⁺ QDs have been prepared in the aqueous phase. It has been demonstrated that isolating paramagnetic Gd³⁺ from fluorescent Cu-In-S core via doping Gd³⁺ into ZnS shell not only avoided the decrease of FL quantum yield (QY), but also ensured the water accessibility of paramagnetic Gd³⁺ ions, by which the FL QY and r₁ relaxivity of Cu-In-S/ZnS:Gd³⁺ QDs achieved as much as 15.6% and 15.33 mM^-1·s^-1, respectively. These high-performance QDs with excellent stability, low biotoxicity, and good tumor permeability were successfully applied for in vivo tumor FL/MR dual-modality imaging, and have shown significant potential in the precision detection and diagnosis of diseases.

Recent advances in 2D material-based phototherapy

Phototherapy, which generally refers to photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), has received significant attention over the past few years since it is non-invasive, has effective selectivity, and has few side effects. As a result, it has become a promising alternative to traditional clinical treatments. At present, two-dimensional materials (2D materials) have proven to be at the forefront of the development of advanced nanomaterials due to their ultrathin structures and fascinating optical properties. As a result, much work has been put into developing phototherapy platforms based on 2D materials. This review summarizes the current developments in 2D materials beyond graphene for phototherapy, focusing on the novel approaches of PTT and PDT. New methods are being developed to go above and beyond conventional treatment to fully use the potential of 2D materials. Additionally, the efficacy of cutting-edge phototherapy is assessed, and the existing difficulties and future prospects of 2D materials for phototherapy are covered.

Acoustic-Based Theranostic Probes Activated by Tumor Microenvironment for Accurate Tumor Diagnosis and Assisted Tumor Therapy

Acoustic-based imaging techniques, including ultrasonography and photoacoustic imaging, are powerful noninvasive approaches for tumor imaging owing to sound transmission facilitation, deep tissue penetration, and high spatiotemporal resolution. Usually, imaging modes were classified into "always-on" mode and "activatable" mode. Conventional "always-on" acoustic-based probes often have difficulty distinguishing lesion regions of interest from surrounding healthy tissues due to poor target-to-background signal ratios. As compared, activatable probes have attracted attention with improved sensitivity, which can boost or amplify imaging signals only in response to specific biomolecular recognition or interactions. The tumor microenvironment (TME) exhibits abnormal physiological conditions that can be used to identify tumor sections from normal tissues. Various types of organic dyes and biomaterials can react with TME, leading to obvious changes in their optical properties. The TME also affects the self-assembly or aggregation state of nanoparticles, which can be used to design activatable imaging probes. Moreover, acoustic-based imaging probes and therapeutic agents can be coencapsulated into one nanocarrier to develop nanotheranostic probes, achieving tumor imaging and cooperative therapy. Satisfactorily, ultrasound waves not only accelerate the release of encapsulated therapeutic agents but also activate therapeutic agents to exert or enhance their therapeutic performance. Meanwhile, various photoacoustic probes can convert photon energy into heat under irradiation, achieving photoacoustic imaging and cooperative photothermal therapy. In this review, we focus on the recently developed TME-triggered ultrasound and photoacoustic theranostic probes for precise tumor imaging and targeted tumor therapy.

Tailoring Polymer-Based Nanoassemblies for Stimuli-Responsive Theranostic Applications

Polymer assemblies on the nanoscale represent a powerful toolbox for the design of theranostic systems when combined with both therapeutic compounds and diagnostic reporting ones. Here, recent advances in the design of theranostic systems for various diseases, containing-in their architecture-either polymers or polymer assemblies as one of the building blocks are presented. This review encompasses the general principles of polymer self-assembly, from the production of adequate copolymers up to supramolecular assemblies with theranostic functionality. Such polymer nanoassemblies can be further tailored through the incorporation of inorganic nanoparticles to endow them with multifunctional therapeutic and/or diagnostic features. Systems that change their architecture or properties in the presence of stimuli are selected, as responsivity to changes in the environment is a key factor for enhancing efficiency. Such theranostic systems are based on the intrinsic properties of copolymers or one of the other components. In addition, systems with a more complex architecture, such as multicompartments, are presented. Selected systems indicate the advantages of such theranostic approaches and provide a basis for further developments in the field.

Adsorption of Peptides onto Carbon Nanotubes Grafted with Poly(ethylene Oxide) Chains: A Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) display exceptional properties that predispose them to wide use in technological or biomedical applications. To remove the toxicity of CNTs and to protect them against undesired protein adsorption, coverage of the CNT sidewall with poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) is often considered. However, controversial results on the antifouling effectiveness of PEO layers have been reported so far. In this work, the interactions of pristine CNT and CNT covered with the PEO chains at different grafting densities with polyglycine, polyserine, and polyvaline are studied using molecular dynamics simulations in vacuum, water, and saline environments. The peptides are adsorbed on CNT in all investigated systems; however, the adsorption strength is reduced in aqueous environments. Save for one case, addition of NaCl at a physiological concentration to water does not appreciably influence the adsorption and structure of the peptides or the grafted PEO layer. It turns out that the flexibility of the peptide backbone allows the peptide to adopt more asymmetric conformations which may be inserted deeper into the grafted PEO layer. Water molecules disrupt the internal hydrogen bonds in the peptides, as well as the hydrogen bonds formed between the peptides and the PEO chains.

Sirtuins and Hypoxia in EMT Control

Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), a physiological process during embryogenesis, can become pathological in the presence of different driving forces. Reduced oxygen tension or hypoxia is one of these forces, triggering a large number of molecular pathways with aberrant EMT induction, resulting in cancer and fibrosis onset. Both hypoxia-induced factors, HIF-1α and HIF-2α, act as master transcription factors implicated in EMT. On the other hand, hypoxia-dependent HIF-independent EMT has also been described. Recently, a new class of seven proteins with deacylase activity, called sirtuins, have been implicated in the control of both hypoxia responses, HIF-1α and HIF-2α activation, as well as EMT induction. Intriguingly, different sirtuins have different effects on hypoxia and EMT, acting as either activators or inhibitors, depending on the tissue and cell type. Interestingly, sirtuins and HIF can be activated or inhibited with natural or synthetic molecules. Moreover, recent studies have shown that these natural or synthetic molecules can be better conveyed using nanoparticles, representing a valid strategy for EMT modulation. The following review, by detailing the aspects listed above, summarizes the interplay between hypoxia, sirtuins, and EMT, as well as the possible strategies to modulate them by using a nanoparticle-based approach.

Chemical Modification of Chitosan for Developing Cancer Nanotheranostics

Cancer is a worldwide public health issue that has not been conquered. Theranostics, the combination of a therapeutic drug and imaging agent in one formulation using nanomaterials, has been developed to better cure cancer in recent years. Although diverse biomaterials have been applied in cancer theranostics, chitosan (CS), a natural polysaccharide bearing easy modification sites with excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, shows great potential for developing cancer nanotheranostics. In this review, we seek to describe the chemical functionalities of CS used in cancer theranostics and their synthesis methods. We also present recent discoveries and research progresses on how the CS functionalization could improve the delivery efficiency of CS-based nanotheranostics. Finally, we report several case studies about the application of CS-based nanotheranostics. This paper focuses on the strategies to construct CS-based theranostics systems via chemical routes and highlights their applications in cancer treatment, which can provide useful references for further studies.

Discovery of Imaging and Therapeutic Integration Bifunctional Molecules Based on Bio-Orthogonal Reaction and Releasable Disulfide Bond

The application of conventional fluorescent probes in living cells has been limited by excess fluorescence interference, reduced selectivity, and poor permeability. Herein, we describe a convenient solution for overcoming the above limitations based on bio-orthogonal reactions and releasable linkers that provide bifunctional molecules for imaging and therapeutic integration. To reduce the interference of excess fluorescent moieties, a bio-orthogonal reaction was applied to activate the fluorescence of the active parent drugs without fluorophores. Moreover, disulfide bonds were incorporated as releasable linkers. After imaging the target protein, the newly yielded fluorophore could be released from the active drugs based on the highly reducing conditions of the tumor. Thus, these bifunctional molecules are comparable in therapeutic activity to the parent drug. These novel imaging and therapeutic integration molecules could be used to realize imaging-aided diagnosis and perform efficient real-time monitoring of cancer cells. Our findings are expected to enable efficient and specific imaging and real-time in vivo prognostic monitoring in the clinic.

Rylene Dye-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Photothermal Eradication of Harmful Dinoflagellates, Akashiwo sanguinea and Alexandrium pacificum

In the era of climate changes, harmful dinoflagellate outbreaks that produce potent algal toxins, odor, and water discoloration in aquatic environments have been increasingly reported. Thus, various treatments have been attempted for the mitigation and management of harmful blooms. Here, we report engineered nanoparticles that consist of two different types of rylene derivatives encapsulated in polymeric micelles. In addition, to avoid dissociation of the aggregate, the core of micelle was stabilized via semi-interpenetrating network (sIPN) formation. On two types of the marine red-tide dinoflagellates, Akashiwo sanguinea and Alexandrium pacificum, the nanoparticle uptake followed by fluorescence labeling and photothermal effect was conducted. Firstly, fluorescence microscopy enabled imaging of the dinoflagellates with the ultraviolet chromophore, Lumogen Violet. Lastly, near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation was exposed on the Lumogen IR788 nanoparticle-treated Ak. Sanguinea. The irradiation resulted in reduced cell survival due to the photothermal effect in microalgae. The results suggested that the nanoparticle, IR788-sIPN, can be applied for potential red-tide algal elimination.

Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Paclitaxel-Loaded Polymeric Micelles

A continuous manufacturing technology based on coaxial turbulent jet in coflow was previously developed to produce paclitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles. Herein, coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CG-MD) simulations were implemented to better understand the effect of the material attributes (i.e., the drug-polymer ratio and the ethanol concentration) and process parameters (i.e., temperature) on the self-assembly process of polymeric micelles as well as to provide molecular details on micelle instability. An all-atom (AA) poly (ethylene glycol)-poly (lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) polymer model was developed as the reference for parameterizing a coarse-grained (CG) model, and the AA polymer model was further validated with experimental glass transition temperature (T_g). The model transferability was verified by comparing structural properties between the AA and CG models. The CG model was further validated with experimental data, including micelle particle size measurements and drug encapsulation efficiency. Furthermore, the encapsulation of paclitaxel into the polymeric micelles was included in the simulations, taking into consideration the interactions between the paclitaxel and the polymers. The results from various points of view demonstrated a strong dependence of the shape of the micelles on the drug encapsulation, with micelles transitioning from spherical to ellipsoidal structures with an increasing paclitaxel amount. Simulation data were also used to identify the critical aggregation number (i.e., the number of polymer and drug molecules required for transition from one shape to another). Improved micellar structural stability was found with a larger micellar size and less solvent accessibility. Lastly, an evaluation was performed on the micellar dissociation free energy using a steered molecular dynamics simulation over a range of temperatures and ethanol concentrations. These simulations revealed that at higher ethanol and temperature conditions, micelles become destabilized, resulting in greater paclitaxel release. The increased drug release was determined to originate from the solvation of the hydrophobic core, which promoted micellar swelling and an associated reduction in hydrophobic interactions, leading to a loosely packed micellar structure.

Advanced Optical Imaging-Guided Nanotheranostics towards Personalized Cancer Drug Delivery

Nanomedicine involves the use of nanotechnology for clinical applications and holds promise to improve treatments. Recent developments offer new hope for cancer detection, prevention and treatment; however, being a heterogenous disorder, cancer calls for a more targeted treatment approach. Personalized Medicine (PM) aims to revolutionize cancer therapy by matching the most effective treatment to individual patients. Nanotheranostics comprise a combination of therapy and diagnostic imaging incorporated in a nanosystem and are developed to fulfill the promise of PM by helping in the selection of treatments, the objective monitoring of response and the planning of follow-up therapy. Although well-established imaging techniques, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Computed Tomography (CT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), are primarily used in the development of theranostics, Optical Imaging (OI) offers some advantages, such as high sensitivity, spatial and temporal resolution and less invasiveness. Additionally, it allows for multiplexing, using multi-color imaging and DNA barcoding, which further aids in the development of personalized treatments. Recent advances have also given rise to techniques permitting better penetration, opening new doors for OI-guided nanotheranostics. In this review, we describe in detail these recent advances that may be used to design and develop efficient and specific nanotheranostics for personalized cancer drug delivery.

Targeted Theranostic 111In/Lu-Nanotexaphyrin for SPECT Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy

Theranostic nanoparticles aim to integrate diagnostic imaging and therapy to facilitate image-guided treatment protocols. Herein, we present a theranostic nanotexaphyrin for prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted radionuclide imaging and focal photodynamic therapy (PDT) accomplished through the chelation of metal isotopes (In, Lu). To realize nanotexaphyrin's theranostic properties, we developed a rapid and robust 111In/Lu-nanotexaphyrin radiolabeling method using a microfluidic system that achieved a high radiochemical yield (>90%). The optimized metalated nanotexaphyrin displayed excellent chemical, photo, and colloidal stabilities, potent singlet oxygen generation, and favorable plasma circulation half-life in vivo (t1/2 = 6.6 h). Biodistribution, including tumor accumulation, was characterized by NIR fluorescence, SPECT/CT imaging, and γ counting. Inclusion of the PSMA-targeting ligand enabled the preferential accumulation of 111In/Lu-nanotexaphyrin in PSMA-positive (PSMA+) prostate tumors (3.0 ± 0.3%ID/g) at 48 h with tumor vs prostate in a 2.7:1 ratio. In combination with light irradiation, the PSMA-targeting nanotexaphyrin showed a potent PDT effect and successfully inhibited PSMA+ tumor growth in a subcutaneous xenograft model. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first demonstration of the inherent metal chelation-driven theranostic capabilities of texaphyrin nanoparticles, which, in combination with PSMA targeting, enabled prostate cancer imaging and therapy.

Engineered strategies to enhance tumor penetration of drug-loaded nanoparticles

Nanocarriers have been widely employed in preclinical studies and clinical trials for the delivery of anticancer drugs. The most important causes of failure in clinical translation of nanocarriers is their inefficient accumulation and penetration which arises from special characteristics of tumor microenvironment such as insufficient blood supply, dense extracellular matrix, and elevated interstitial fluid pressure. Various strategies such as engineering extracellular matrix, optimizing the physicochemical properties of nanocarriers have been proposed to increase the depth of tumor penetration; however, these strategies have not been very successful so far. Novel strategies such as transformable nanocarriers, transcellular transport of peptide-modified nanocarriers, and bio-inspired carriers have recently been emerged as an advanced generation of drug carriers. In this study, the latest developments of nanocarrier-based drug delivery to solid tumor are presented with their possible limitations. Then, the prospects of advanced drug delivery systems are discussed in detail.

MNPs-IHSPN nanoparticles in multi-application with absorption of bio drugs in vitro

The aim of this project is to investigate the method of using a common buffer to determine the degree of stabilization and secretion of two drug molecules that have been analyzed in vitro. First, magnetic nanoparticles were synthesized and their structure was identified by instruments such as XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) and FT-IR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy). The main purpose of this study was to investigate the stabilization and release of methotrexate on the surface of magnetic nanoparticles. The two temperatures were 37 and 25°, respectively. After reaction with the biomolecules, the adsorption rate for both drug molecules was about 60–80. PBS buffer was also used for diffusion of biomolecules and the results were analyzed by spectrophotometer analysis. With these results, the adsorption of cysteine and MTX was more than 60% and its release rate in MNPS-IHSPN was up to 90%, which means that high-strength stabilization and release by magnetic nanoparticles under external magnetic field and in vitro confirmed. The result of this project for the exchange of drugs by the surface of magnetic nanoparticles to repair damaged cells in the body of living organisms can be generalized.

CD44-targeted, indocyanine green-paclitaxel-loaded human serum albumin nanoparticles for potential image-guided drug delivery

The use of multifunctional nanomedicines for image-guided drug delivery is currently being universally evaluated as a means of efficiently managing cancers and other diseases. In this study we evaluated the potential of an indocyanine green (ICG) and paclitaxel (PTX) loaded human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles that was conjugated with hyaluronic acid for use in image-guided drug delivery targeted to CD44-positive non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Series of NSCLC cell lines were evaluated for the expression of CD44 using both western blot analysis and qRT-PCR and compared to a normal lung fibroblast cell line (MRC-5). Using Fluorescence microscopy and photoacoustic imaging (PA), we explored the ability of these targeted nanoparticles to selectively accumulate in NSCLC cell lines in comparison to MRC-5 and their potential for biomedical imaging towards their use for theranostic application. Results obtained suggest that these targeted nanoparticles have potential for application in both imaging and treatment of NSCLC.

Gold Nanoparticles; Potential Nanotheranostic Agent in Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review with Systematic Search Strategy

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease typically prevalent among women and is the second-largest cause of death worldwide. Early diagnosis is the key to minimize the cancer-induced complication, however, the conventional diagnostic strategies have been sluggish, complex, and, to some extent, non-specific. Therapeutic tools are not so convenient and side effects of current therapies offer the development of novel theranostic tool to combat this deadly disease.

OBJECTIVE

This article aims to summarize the advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer with gold nanoparticles (GNP or AuNP).

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in the three popular electronic online databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, regarding GNP as breast cancer theranostics.

RESULTS

Published literature demonstrated that GNPs tuned with photosensitive moieties, nanomaterials, drugs, peptides, nucleotide, peptides, antibodies, aptamer, and other biomolecules improve the conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies of breast cancer management with minimum cytotoxic effect. GNP derived diagnosis system assures reproducibility, reliability, and accuracy cost-effectively. Additionally, surface-modified GNP displayed theranostic potential even in the metastatic stage of breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Divergent strategies have shown the theranostic potential of surface tuned GNPs against breast cancer even in the metastatic stage with minimum cytotoxic effects both in vitro and in vivo.

Recent near-infrared light-activated nanomedicine toward precision cancer therapy

Light has been present throughout the history of mankind and even the universe. It is of great significance to human life, contributing to energy, agriculture, communication, and much more. In the biomedical field, light has been developed as a switch to control medical processes with minimal invasion and high spatiotemporal selectivity. During the past three years, near-infrared (NIR) light as long-wavelength light has been applied to more than 3000 achievements in biological applications due to its deep penetration depth and low phototoxicity. Remotely controlled cancer therapy usually involves the conversion of biologically inert NIR light. Thus, various materials, especially nanomaterials that can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), ultraviolet (UV)/visual light, or thermal energy and so on under NIR illumination achieve great potential for the research of nanomedicine. Here, we offered an overview of recent advances in NIR light-activated nanomedicine for cancer therapeutic applications. NIR-light-conversion nanotechnologies for both directly triggering nanodrugs and smart drug delivery toward tumor therapy were discussed emphatically. The challenges and future trends of the use of NIR light in biomedical applications were also provided as a conclusion. We expect that this review will spark inspiration for biologists, materials scientists, pharmacologists, and chemists to fight against diseases and boost the future clinical-translational applications of NIR technology-based precision nanomedicine.

Dendrimers based cancer nanotheranostics: An overview

Cancer is a known deadliest disease that requires a judicious diagnostic, targeting, and treatment strategy for an early prognosis and selective therapy. The major pitfalls of the conventional approach are non-specificity in targeting, failure to precisely monitor therapy outcome, and cancer progression leading to malignancies. The unique physicochemical properties offered by nanotechnology derived nanocarriers have the potential to radically change the landscape of cancer diagnosis and therapeutic management. An integrative approach of utilizing both diagnostic and therapeutic functionality using a nanocarrier is termed as nanotheranostic. The nanotheranostics platform is designed in such a way that overcomes various biological barriers, efficiently targets the payload to the desired locus, and simultaneously supports planning, monitoring, and verification of treatment delivery to demonstrate an enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Thus, a nanotheranostic platform could potentially assist in drug targeting, image-guided focal therapy, drug release and distribution monitoring, predictionof treatment response, and patient stratification. A class of highly branched nanocarriers known as dendrimers is recognized as an advanced nanotheranostic platform that has the potential to revolutionize the oncology arena by its unique and exciting features. A dendrimer is a well-defined three-dimensional globular chemical architecture with a high level of monodispersity, amenability of precise size control, and surface functionalization. All the dendrimer properties exhibit a reproducible pharmacokinetic behavior that could ensure the desired biodistribution and efficacy. Dendrimers are thus being exploited as a nanotheranostic platform embodying a diverse class of therapeutic, imaging, and targeting moieties for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Self-assembled Viral Nanoparticles as Targeted Anticancer Vehicles

Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) comprise a variety of mammalian viruses, plant viruses, and bacteriophages, that have been adopted as building blocks and supra-molecular templates in nanotechnology. VNPs demonstrate the dynamic, monodisperse, polyvalent, and symmetrical architectures which represent examples of such biological templates. These programmable scaffolds have been exploited for genetic and chemical manipulation for displaying of targeted moieties together with encapsulation of various payloads for diagnosis or therapeutic intervention. The drug delivery system based on VNPs offer diverse advantages over synthetic nanoparticles, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, water solubility, and high uptake capability. Here we summarize the recent progress of VNPs especially as targeted anticancer vehicles from the encapsulation and surface modification mechanisms, involved viruses and VNPs, to their application potentials.

Integrated photodynamic Raman theranostic system for cancer diagnosis, treatment, and post-treatment molecular monitoring

Theranostics, the combination of diagnosis and therapy, has long held promise as a means to achieving personalised precision cancer treatments. However, despite its potential, theranostics has yet to realise significant clinical translation, largely due the complexity and overriding toxicity concerns of existing theranostic nanoparticle strategies. Methods: Here, we present an alternative nanoparticle-free theranostic approach based on simultaneous Raman spectroscopy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) in an integrated clinical platform for cancer theranostics. Results: We detail the compatibility of Raman spectroscopy and PDT for cancer theranostics, whereby Raman spectroscopic diagnosis can be performed on PDT photosensitiser-positive cells and tissues without inadvertent photosensitiser activation/photobleaching or impaired diagnostic capacity. We further demonstrate that our theranostic platform enables in vivo tumour diagnosis, treatment, and post-treatment molecular monitoring in real-time. Conclusion: This system thus achieves effective theranostic performance, providing a promising new avenue towards the clinical realisation of theranostics.

Nanoparticles loading porphyrin sensitizers in improvement of photodynamic therapy for ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer, the malignant tumor with the highest mortality rate in gynecological tumors, leads to a poor prognosis due to tumor metastasis. At present, the main treatment for ovarian cancer is the combination of cytoreduction surgery and chemotherapy. But the surgery is insufficient to solve the extensive transfer of tumor in the abdominal cavity and a large proportion of ovarian cancer cases have shown resistance to chemotherapy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a viable treatment option for a wide range of applications, especially in malignant tumors. Porphyrin sensitizers, as the most widely used photosensitive agents, have the following advantages: short photosensitive period and high singlet oxygen production. However, most studies have found that it is difficult to achieve high loading rates of photosensitive agents, thus effective concentration in target tissue is suboptimal and the lethal ability is greatly reduced. In this article, we review several studies that nanoparticles loading porphyrin sensitizers for photodynamic therapy of ovarian cancer.

METHODS

We collected relevant literature from PUBMED and reviewed their research content.

RESULTS

The application of nanotechnology to PDT in ovarian cancer can reduce the non-specific toxicity of photosensitive agents and increase stability and delivery efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination with nanotechnology can cover the shortcomings of photodynamic therapy, but the specific efficacy still needs a large number of experiments to prove.

Intranasal Nanoemulsions for Direct Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Actives for CNS Disorders

The treatment of various central nervous system (CNS) diseases has been challenging, despite the rapid development of several novel treatment approaches. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is one of the major issues in the treatment of CNS diseases, having major role in the protection of the brain but simultaneously constituting the main limiting hurdle for drugs targeting the brain. Nasal drug delivery has gained significant interest for brain targeting over the past decades, wherein the drug is directly delivered to the brain by the trigeminal and olfactory pathway. Various novel and promising formulation approaches have been explored for drug targeting to the brain by nasal administration. Nanoemulsions have the potential to avoid problems, including low solubility, poor bioavailability, slow onset of action, and enzymatic degradation. The present review highlights research scenarios of nanoemulsions for nose-to-brain delivery for the management of CNS ailments classified on the basis of brain disorders and further identifies the areas that remain unexplored. The significance of the total dose delivered to the target region, biodistribution studies, and long-term toxicity studies have been identified as the key areas of future research.

Multimode Imaging-Guided Photothermal/Chemodynamic Synergistic Therapy Nanoagent with a Tumor Microenvironment Responded Effect

The development of near-infrared (NIR) laser triggered phototheranostics for multimodal imaging-guided combination therapy is highly desirable. However, multiple laser sources, as well as inadequate therapeutic efficacy, impede the application of phototheranostics. Here, we develop an all-in-one theranostic nanoagent PEGylated DCNP@DMSN-MoO_x NPs (DCDMs) with a flower-like structure fabricated by coating uniformly sized down-conversion nanoparticles (DCNPs) with dendritic mesoporous silica (DMSN) and then loading the ultrasmall oxygen-deficient molybdenum oxide nanoparticles (MoO_x NPs) inside through an electrostatic interaction. Owing to the doping of Nd ions, when excited by an 808 nm laser, DCNPs emit bright NIR-II emissions (1060 and 1300 nm), which have characteristic high spatial resolution and deep tissue penetration. In terms of treatment, MoO_x NPs could be specifically activated by excessive hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the tumor microenvironment, thus generating ¹O₂ via the Russell mechanism. In addition, the excessive glutathione (GSH) in the tumor cells could be depleted through the Mo-mediated redox reaction, thus effectively decreasing the antioxidant capacity of tumor cells. Importantly, the excellent photothermal properties (photothermal conversion efficiency of 51.5% under an 808 nm laser) synergistically accelerate the generation of ¹O₂. This cyclic redox reaction of molybdenum indeed ensured the high efficacy of tumor-specific therapy, leaving the normal tissues unharmed. MoO_x NPs could also efficiently catalyze tumor endogenous H₂O₂ into a considerable amount of O₂ in an acidic tumor microenvironment, thus relieving hypoxia in tumor tissues. Moreover, the computed tomography (CT) and T₁-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) effect from Gd³⁺ and Y³⁺ ions make DCNPs act as a hybrid imaging agent, allowing comprehensive analysis of tumor lesions. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments validate that such an "all-in-one" nanoplatform possesses desirable anticancer abilities under single laser source irradiation, benefiting from the NIR-II fluorescence/CT/MR multimodal imaging-guided photothermal/chemodynamic synergistic therapy. Overall, our strategy paves the way to explore other noninvasive cancer phototheranostics.

Nanotheranostics for Cancer Therapy and Detection: State of the Art

Nanotheranostics, an approach of combining both diagnosis and therapy, is one of the latest advances in cancer therapy particularly. Nanocarriers designed and derived from inorganic materials such as like gold nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes have been explored for tremendous applications in this area. Similarly, nanoparticles composed of some organic material alone or in combination with inorganic nano-cargos have been developed pre-clinically and possess excellent features desired. Photothermal therapy, MRI, simultaneous imaging and delivery, and combination chemotherapy with a diagnosis are a few of the known methods exploring cancer therapy and detection at organ/tissue/molecular/sub-cellular level. This review comprises an overview of the recent reports meant for nano theranostics purposes. Targeted cancer nanotheranostics have been included for understating tumor micro-environment or cell-specific targeting approach employed. A brief account of various strategies is also included for the readers highlighting the mechanism of cancer therapy.

Continuously manufactured single-core iron oxide nanoparticles for cancer theranostics as valuable contribution in translational research

Micromixer technology was used to manufacture magnetic single core iron oxide nanoparticles that combine imaging as well as therapeutic functions. In a continuous, scalable and highly controllable manner, synthesis with biocompatible educts via an aqueous synthesis route was performed. Size control by varying relevant process parameters e.g. temperature was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy measurements of experimental series demonstrating the exceptional size control and homogeneity. Furthermore, analytical centrifugation evidenced the stably dispersed state of the single core nanoparticles in aqueous media. Size controlled production of single-core iron oxide nanoparticles was used to design optimized nanoparticles with a core diameter of about 30 nm, showing high signal amplitudes in Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) as a promising MPI tracer material. Moreover, therapeutic potential of these particles in magnetic fluid hyperthermia was evaluated and specific absorption rates (SAR values) up to 1 kW per g(Fe) were obtained, which exceed the comparable SAR value of Resovist® by more than a factor of three. Relaxometry measurements clearly confirmed the capacity of these single-core magnetic nanoparticles to generate significant T ₂-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast that potentially allows multimodal imaging for monitoring the particles in vivo in a theranostic application scenario. Finally, first cell viability and apoptosis tests on endothelial cells did not show any cytotoxicity certifying a good biocompatibility of the iron oxide nanoparticles. This microtechnological approach provides reproducible, scalable single core iron oxide nanoparticles as highly performing tracers for MPI diagnosis as well as efficient heat generators for hyperthermia therapy. These preliminary results contribute to translational research in image guided cancer therapy - a further step from basic research to future medicine.

Enhancing the ROS generation ability of a rhodamine-decorated iridium(iii) complex by ligand regulation for endoplasmic reticulum-targeted photodynamic therapy

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a very important organelle responsible for crucial biosynthetic, sensing, and signalling functions in eukaryotic cells. In this work, we established a strategy of ligand regulation to enhance the singlet oxygen generation capacity and subcellular organelle localization ability of a rhodamine-decorated iridium(iii) complex by variation of the cyclometallating ligand. The resulting metal complex showed outstanding reactive oxygen species generation efficiency (1.6-fold higher than that of rose bengal in CH₃CN) and highly specific ER localization ability, which demonstrated the promise of the metal-based photo-theranostic agent by simultaneously tuning the photochemical/physical and biological properties. Additionally, low dark cytotoxicity, high photostability and selective tumour cell uptake were featured by this complex to demonstrate it as a promising candidate in photodynamic therapy (PDT) applications. In vivo near infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging and tumour PDT were investigated and showed preferential accumulation at the tumour site and remarkable tumour growth suppression, respectively.

Granzyme B nanoreporter for early monitoring of tumor response to immunotherapy

Despite recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy, accurate monitoring of its efficacy is challenging due to heterogeneous immune responses. Conventional imaging techniques lack the sensitivity and specificity for early response assessment. In this study, we designed a granzyme B (GrB) nanoreporter (GNR) that can deliver an immune checkpoint inhibitor to the tumor and track time-sensitive GrB activity as a direct way to monitor initiation of effective immune responses. Anti-programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) antibody-conjugated GNRs inhibited PD-1/PD-L1 interactions efficiently and induced T cell-mediated GrB release that can be imaged using activatable imaging probe. GNRs enabled real-time immunotherapy response monitoring in a tumor-bearing mice model and distinguished between highly responsive and poorly responsive tumors. Furthermore, increasing doses resulted in a better response and enhanced sensitivity in poorly responsive tumors. These findings indicate that GNR has the potential to serve as a tool for sensitive and noninvasive evaluation of immunotherapy efficacy.

The Efficacy of Cholesterol-Based Carriers in Drug Delivery

Several researchers have reported the use of cholesterol-based carriers in drug delivery. The presence of cholesterol in cell membranes and its wide distribution in the body has led to it being used in preparing carriers for the delivery of a variety of therapeutic agents such as anticancer, antimalarials and antivirals. These cholesterol-based carriers were designed as micelles, nanoparticles, copolymers, liposomes, etc. and their routes of administration include oral, intravenous and transdermal. The biocompatibility, good bioavailability and biological activity of cholesterol-based carriers make them potent prodrugs. Several in vitro and in vivo studies revealed cholesterol-based carriers potentials in delivering bioactive agents. In this manuscript, a critical review of the efficacy of cholesterol-based carriers is reported.

Synthesis of Amphiphilic Statistical Copolymers Bearing Methoxyethyl and Phosphorylcholine Groups and Their Self-Association Behavior in Water

Biocompatible amphiphilic statistical copolymers P(MEA/MPCm) composed of 2-methoxyethyl acrylate (MEA) and 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) were prepared with three different mol% of the hydrophilic unit MPC (m = 6, 12 and 46 mol%). The monomer reactivity ratios of MEA (rMEA) and MPC (rMPC) were 0.53 and 2.21, respectively. The rMEA × rMPC value of 1.17 demonstrated that statistical copolymerization was successful. P(MEA/MPC12) and P(MEA/MPC46) copolymers did not undergo aggregation in water, whereas the P(MEA/MPC6) copolymer formed micelles in water with a hydrodynamic radius (Rh) of 96.9 nm and a critical aggregation concentration, which was determined using pyrene fluorescence, at 0.0082 g/L. The restricted motion of the protons in the hydrophobic MEA units in the micelles' cores provided additional evidence of self-association in P(MEA/MPC6).

A New Pharmacokinetic Model Describing the Biodistribution of Intravenously and Intratumorally Administered Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) in a GL261 Xenograft Glioblastoma Model

Background

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have displayed multifunctional applications in cancer theranostics following systemic delivery. In an effort to increase the therapeutic potential of local therapies (including focal hyperthermia), nanoparticles can also be administered intratumorally. Therefore, the development of a reliable pharmacokinetic model for the prediction of nanoparticle distribution for both clinically relevant routes of delivery is of high importance.

Materials and Methods

The biodistribution of SPIONs (of two different sizes – 130 nm and 60 nm) radiolabeled with zirconium-89 or technetium-99m following intratumoral or intravenous injection was investigated in C57/Bl6 mice bearing subcutaneous GL261 glioblastomas. Based on PET/CT biodistribution data, a novel pharmacokinetic model was established for a better understanding of the pharmacokinetics of the SPIONs after both administration routes.

Results

The PET image analysis of the nanoparticles (confirmed by histology) demonstrated the presence of radiolabeled nanoparticles within the glioma site (with low amounts in the liver and spleen) at all investigated time points following intratumoral injection. The mathematical model confirmed the dynamic nanoparticle redistribution in the organism over a period of 72 h with an equilibrium reached after 100 h. Intravenous injection of nanoparticles demonstrated a different distribution pattern with a rapid particle retention in all organs (particularly in liver and spleen) and a subsequent slow release rate.

Conclusion

The mathematical model demonstrated good agreement with experimental data derived from tumor mouse models suggesting the value of this tool to predict the real-time pharmacokinetic features of SPIONs in vivo. In the future, it is planned to adapt our model to other nanoparticle formulations to more precisely describe their biodistribution in in vivo model systems.

When polymers meet carbon nanostructures: expanding horizons in cancer therapy

The development of hybrid materials, which combine inorganic with organic materials, is receiving increasing attention by researchers. As a consequence of carbon nanostructures high chemical versatility, they exhibit enormous potential for new highly engineered multifunctional nanotherapeutic agents for cancer therapy. Whereas many groups are working on drug delivery systems for chemotherapy, the use of carbon nanohybrids for radiotherapy is rarely applied. Thus, nanotechnology offers a wide range of solutions to overcome the current obstacles of conventional chemo- and/or radiotherapies. Within this review, the structure and properties of carbon nanostructures (carbon nanotubes, nanographene oxide) functionalized preferentially with different types of polymers (synthetic, natural) are discussed. In short, synthesis approaches, toxicity investigations and anticancer efficacy of different carbon nanohybrids are described.

Yolk-shell nanovesicles endow glutathione-responsive concurrent drug release and T1 MRI activation for cancer theranostics

The effort of incorporating therapeutic drugs with imaging agents has been one of the mainstreams of nanomedicine, which holds great promise in cancer treatment in terms of monitoring therapeutic drug activity and evaluating prognostic index. However, it is still technically challenging to develop nanomedicine endowing a spatiotemporally controllable mechanism of drug release and activatable imaging capability. Here, we developed a yolk-shell type of GSH-responsive nanovesicles (NVs) in which therapeutic drug (Doxorubicin, DOX) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent (ultrasmall paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, USPIO NPs) formed complexes (denoted as USD) and were encapsulated inside the NVs. The formation of USD complexes is mediated by both the electrostatic adsorption between DOX and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) polymers and the DOX-iron coordination effect on USPIO NPs. The obtained USD NVs showed a unique yolk-shell structure with restrained drug activity and quenched T1 MRI contrast ability which, on the other hand, can respond to glutathione (GSH) and lead to drug release and T1 contrast activation in a spatiotemporally concurrent manner. Furthermore, the USD NVs exhibited great potential to kill HCT116 cancer cells in vitro and effectively inhibit the tumor growth in vivo. This study may shed light on the design of sophisticated nanotheranostics in precision nanomedicine.

Factors Influencing the Delivery Efficiency of Cancer Nanomedicines

The superiority of nanomedicine over conventional medicines in the treatment of cancer has gained immediate recognition worldwide. As traditional cancer therapies are nonspecific and detrimental to healthy cells, the ability of nanomedicine to release drugs to target tumor cells specifically instead of healthy cells has brought new hope to cancer patients. This review focuses on the effects of various factors of nanoparticles such as transport, concentration in cells, tumor microenvironment, interaction with protein, penetration, uptake by tumor cells, cancer cell mutations, and intracellular trafficking of the nanoparticle. Besides the history of nanomedicine, future perspectives of nanomedicines are also explored in this text.

Recent Advances in Porphyrin-Based Inorganic Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment

The application of porphyrins and their derivatives have been investigated extensively over the past years for phototherapy cancer treatment. Phototherapeutic Porphyrins have the ability to generate high levels of reactive oxygen with a low dark toxicity and these properties have made them robust photosensitizing agents. In recent years, Porphyrins have been combined with various nanomaterials in order to improve their bio-distribution. These combinations allow for nanoparticles to enhance photodynamic therapy (PDT) cancer treatment and adding additional nanotheranostics (photothermal therapy-PTT) as well as enhance photodiagnosis (PDD) to the reaction. This review examines various porphyrin-based inorganic nanoparticles developed for phototherapy nanotheranostic cancer treatment over the last three years (2017 to 2020). Furthermore, current challenges in the development and future perspectives of porphyrin-based nanomedicines for cancer treatment are also highlighted.