Exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells alleviate Parkinson's disease and neuronal damage through inhibition of microglia

Microglia-mediated inflammatory responses have been shown to play a crucial role in Parkinson's disease. In addition, exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells have shown anti-inflammatory effects in the treatment of a variety of diseases. However, whether they can protect neurons in Parkinson's disease by inhibiting microglia-mediated inflammatory responses is not yet known. In this study, exosomes were isolated from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and injected into a 6-hydroxydopamine-induced rat model of Parkinson's disease. We found that the exosomes injected through the tail vein and lateral ventricle were absorbed by dopaminergic neurons and microglia on the affected side of the brain, where they repaired nigral-striatal dopamine system damage and inhibited microglial activation. Furthermore, in an in vitro cell model, pretreating lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV2 cells with exosomes reduced interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 secretion, prevented the adoption of pyroptosis-associated morphology by BV2 cells, and increased the survival rate of SH-SY5Y cells. Potential targets for treatment with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and exosomes were further identified by high-throughput microRNA sequencing and protein spectrum sequencing. Our findings suggest that human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and exosomes are a potential treatment for Parkinson's disease, and that their neuroprotective effects may be mediated by inhibition of excessive microglial proliferation.

Expression of recombinant human Apolipoprotein A-IMilano in Nicotiana tabacum

Apolipoprotein A-IMilano (Apo A-IMilano) is a natural mutant of Apolipoprotein. It is currently the only protein that can clear arterial wall thrombus deposits and promptly alleviate acute myocardial ischemia. Apo A-IMilano is considered as the most promising therapeutic protein for treating atherosclerotic diseases without obvious toxic or side effects. However, the current biopharmaceutical platforms are not efficient for developing Apo A-IMilano. The objectives of this research were to express Apo A-IMilano using the genetic transformation ability of N. tabacum. The method is to clone the coding sequence of Apo A-IMilano into the plant binary expression vector pCHF3 with a Flag/His6/GFP tag. The constructed plasmid was transformed into N. tabacum by a modified agrobacterium-mediated method, and transformants were selected under antibiotic stress. PCR, RT-qPCR, western blot and co-localization analysis was used to further verify the resistant N. tabacum. The stable expression and transient expression of N. tabacum were established, and the pure product of Apo A-IMilano was obtained through protein A/G agarose. The results showed that Apo A-IMilano was expressed in N. tabacum with a yield of 0.05 mg/g leaf weight and the purity was 90.58% ± 1.65. The obtained Apo A-IMilano protein was subjected to amino acid sequencing. Compared with the theoretical sequence of Apo A-IMilano, the amino acid coverage was 86%, it is also found that Cysteine replaces Arginine at position 173, which indicates that Apo A-IMilano, a mutant of Apo A-I, is accurately expressed in N. tabacum. The purified Apo A-IMilano protein had a lipid binding activity. The established genetic modification N. tabacum will provide a cost-effective system for the production of Apo A-IMilano. Regarding the rapid propagation of N. tabacum, this system provides the possibility of large-scale production and accelerated clinical translation of Apo A-IMilano.

Graphical Abstract

Perinatal exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induces hepatic lipid accumulation mediated by diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1

INTRODUCTION

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a commonly used plasticizer in consumer products and medical devices. It is also suspected to exacerbate the development of fatty liver. However, the mechanisms underlying excessive lipid synthesis and its deposition in the liver are yet to be identified. This study was aimed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of hepatic lipid accumulation in adult male offspring after perinatal exposure to DEHP.

METHOD

Corn oil and DEHP (0.75 mg/kg/day) were administered once per day to dam from gestation day 6 to postnatal day (PND) 21 by oral gavage. After the weaning period, DEHP treated male pups were categorized into early life stage- and lifelong period group. Male rats both control and early life stage group administered corn oil, and lifelong period group administered DEHP from PND 22 to 70. Histological examination and triglyceride (TG) levels in the liver were analyzed. Expressions of transcription factors associated with lipid accumulation in the liver were analyzed.

RESULTS

Both early life stage- and lifelong period group, hepatic TG levels, and mRNA and protein expression of diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) were significantly higher than control (TG: all p < 0.05, mRNA & protein: p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively). The average body weight from PND 35 to 63, and mRNA and protein expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c in lifelong period group were significantly lower than control (all p < 0.05); however, alanine transaminase were significantly higher than control (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Perinatal exposure to DEHP may induce the hepatic lipid accumulation through up-regulation of DGAT1 expression.

Active compounds of herbs ameliorate impaired cognition in APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by amyloid plaque accumulations, intracellular tangles and neuronal loss in certain brain regions. It has been shown that a disturbance of normal iron metabolism contributes to the pathophysiology of AD. However, the mechanism underlying abnormal iron load in the brain of AD patients is unclear. The frontal cortex, an important brain structure for executive function, is one of the regions affected by AD. We investigated the beneficial effects of active compounds of Epimedium, Astragaoside and Puerarin on iron metabolism in the frontal cortex of six-month-old APPswe/PS1_ΔE9 (APP/PS1) double transgenic mouse, a model of AD. Treatment with the active compounds reduced cognitive and memory deficits and damaged cell ultrastructure in APP/PS1 mice. These beneficial effects were associated with changes in expression levels of iron metabolism proteins in the frontal cortex, including divalent metal transporter with iron response element (DMT1-with IRE), divalent metal transporter without iron response element (DMT1-without IRE), transferrin (TF) and transferring receptor 1 (TfR1); three release proteins including the exporter ferroportin 1 (Fpn1), ceruloplasmin (CP) and hephaestin (HEPH), one increased storage iron protein ferritin and one iron regulating hormone hepcidin. These findings suggest that the active compounds improve cognition and memory in brain neurodegenerative disorders and these beneficial effects are associated with reduced impairment of iron metabolism. This study may provide a new strategy for developing novel drugs to treat AD.

P5728Association of systolic blood pressure and cardiovascular outcomes at different age groups in the healthy general population: a nationwide prospective cohort study

Background

Uncertainties remain regarding the effect of blood pressure on various cardiovascular outcomes in different age groups.

Purpose

We aimed to identify 1) whether a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 130–139 mm Hg elevates cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and 2) whether SBP shows a linear association with cause-specific CVD mortality in all age groups among individuals without known hypertension and CVD.

Methods

We used the Korean National Health Insurance sample data (n=429,220). Participants were categorized into three groups by age (40–59, 60–69, and 70–80 years).

Results

A positive and graded association was generally observed between SBP and overall and cause-specific CVD mortality regardless of age, except for ischemic heart disease (IHD) mortality in those aged 70–80 years. Among those aged 70–80, the hazard ratios (HRs) (95% CIs) for overall CVD mortality were 1.08 (0.92–1.28), 1.14 (0.97–1.34), and 1.34 (1.14–1.58) for SBP values of 120–129, 130–139, and 140–149 mm Hg, respectively, compared to SBP <120 mm Hg. For total stroke mortality, the corresponding HRs were 1.29 (1.02–1.64), 1.37 (1.09–1.72), and 1.52 (1.20–1.93), while for IHD mortality, the corresponding HRs were 0.90 (0.64–1.26), 0.86 (0.62–1.19), and 1.29 (0.93–1.78). Nonlinear associations were significant for IHD (Fig 1).

Figure 1

Conclusion

In the elderly Korean population, SBPs of 130–139 mm Hg elevated total stroke mortality, but not IHD mortality, compared to normal BP, and a linear association was not observed for IHD mortality in the range <140 mm Hg. Regarding an appropriate diagnostic cutoff for hypertension, an individualized approach considering each person's organ susceptibility is needed for the elderly population.

Acknowledgement/Funding

None

D-dimer as a predictor of early neurologic deterioration in cryptogenic stroke with active cancer

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The occurrence of stroke in cancer patients is caused by conventional vascular risk factors and cancer-specific mechanisms. However, cryptogenic stroke in patients with cancer was considered to be more related to cancer-specific hypercoagulability. In this study, we investigated the potential of the D-dimer level to serve as a predictor of early neurologic deterioration (END) in cryptogenic stroke patients with active cancer.

METHODS

We recruited 109 cryptogenic stroke patients with active cancer within 72 h of symptom onset. We defined END as an increase of ≥1 point in the motor National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score or ≥2 points in the total NIHSS score within 72 h of admission. After adjusting for potential confounding factors in the multivariate analysis, we calculated the odds ratios (ORs) and confidence intervals (CIs) of D-dimer in the prediction of END.

RESULTS

Among 109 patients, END events were identified in 34 (31%) patients within 72 h. END was significantly associated with systemic metastasis, multiple vascular territory lesions on the initial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), initial NIHSS score and D-dimer levels. In the multivariate analysis, the D-dimer level (adjusted OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.04-1.17; P < 0.01) and initial NIHSS score (adjusted OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.01-1.15; P = 0.03) predicted END after adjusting for potential confounding factors. In the subgroup analysis of 72 follow-up MRIs, D-dimer level was also correlated with new territory lesions on the follow-up MRI in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

Ischemic stroke patients with active cancer and elevated D-dimer levels appear to be at increased risk for END recurrent thromboembolic stroke.

Prolonged sleep increases the risk of intracerebral haemorrhage: a nationwide case-control study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Although abnormal sleep duration is positively associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease and mortality, the specific impact on intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) risk remains unclear. The relationship between sleep duration and the risk of ICH was investigated in our study.

METHODS

A nationwide, multicentre matched case-control study was performed to investigate the risk factors for haemorrhagic stroke, using patients from 33 hospitals in Korea. In all, 490 patients with ICH and 980 age- and sex-matched controls were enrolled. Detailed information regarding sleep, sociodemographic factors, lifestyle and medical history before ICH onset was obtained using qualified structured questionnaires. Sleep duration was categorized and the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using a conditional logistic regression with 7 h as the reference duration.

RESULTS

The number of subjects with long sleep duration, more than 8 h, was significantly greater in the ICH group than in the control group (≥8 h, 30.4% vs. 22.6%, P = 0.002). After controlling for relevant confounding factors, longer sleep duration was found to be independently associated with the risk of ICH in a dose-response manner (8 h, OR 1.57, 95% CI 1.00-2.47; ≥9 h, OR 5.00, 95% CI 2.18-11.47).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that long sleep duration is positively associated with an increased ICH risk in a dose-dependent manner. Further studies on the relationship linking long sleep duration with increased risk of ICH are required.

[Estrogen receptor subtypes and the regulatory effect of receptor ligand binding on gene transcription]

This review introduces the structure, functions, tissue distribution, physiologic roles of estrogen receptor subtypes (ER alpha and ER beta) along with transcriptional activities of estrogen receptor ligands and the mechanism of the modulatory pathway and tissue specific property of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), and phytoestrogens. This article is to provide a systemic approach for increasing the selectivity of estrogenic drug and optimizing the clinically based strategy of drug design. Differences exist between ER alpha and ER beta in structure, function, tissue distribution, physiologic roles and response to ligands, as well as the regulating effect on gene transcription, which are mainly determined by different co-regulators they recruit respectively.

Inhibition of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 productions and NF-kappa B activation in lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages by catalposide, an iridoid glycoside isolated from Catalpa ovata G. Don (Bignoniaceae)

Catalposide, the major iridoid glycoside isolated from the stem bark of Catalpa ovata G. Don (Bignoniaceae), was found to inhibit the productions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), and the activation of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) in RAW 264.7 macrophages activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Catalposide also inhibited the expressions of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 genes and the nuclear translocation of p65 subunit of NF-kappaB in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that catalposide suppressed the binding of FITC-conjugated LPS to CD14 on the surface of cells, probably resulting in the inhibitory effects on TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 productions and NF-kappaB activation. These findings suggest that catalposide could be an attractive candidate for adjunctive therapy in gram-negative bacterial infections.

Chronological changes of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and excitatory amino acid carrier 1 immunoreactivities in CA1 area and subiculum after transient forebrain ischemia

We investigated changes of immunoreactivities of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NR) and of excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC-1), the neuronal glutamate transporter, in the vulnerable CA1 area and the less vulnerable subiculum of the gerbil hippocampus at various times following transient forebrain ischemia. At 30 min after ischemia-reperfusion, the intensity of NR immunoreactivity increased markedly in neurons of CA1 and subiculum, particularly NR2A/B, while EAAC-1 immunoreactivity was reduced in CA1. At 3 hr after reperfusion, the density of NR1 immunoreactivity markedly decreased in CA1. In contrast EAAC-1 immunoreactivity increased in CA1 and in the subiculum. At 12 hr after reperfusion, the decrease of NR1 immunoreactivity was not detected whereas EAAC-1 immunoreactivities in the CA1 area were intensified. In the subiculum, both NR subunits immunoreactivities decreased significantly, in contrast to the maintenance of EAAC-1 immunoreactivity. At 24 hr after reperfusion, both NR2A/B and EAAC-1 immunoreactivities decreased markedly in CA1 and subiculum. We tentatively suggest that the increase of NR immunoreactivity in CA1 at early times after ischemia-reperfusion may increase the delayed neuronal death, and that the increase or maintenance of EAAC-1 immunoreactivity at early times after ischemia-reperfusion may be an important factor in survival of neurons.

Age-related change of neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive neurons in the rat anterior olfactory nucleus

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is located in the olfactory system, including the olfactory bulb, and is thought to be one of the main neurotransmitters for olfaction. Thus, we examined age-related changes of NPY-immunoreactive (IR) neurons in the rat anterior olfactory nucleus (AON) at various aging stages over a period of 2 years; postnatal months 1 (PM 1), PM 6, PM 12 and PM 24. NPY-IR neurons in the AON were present in the lateral and medial subdivisions at PM 1 and at PM 6 were distributed in all subdivisions of the AON. Prior to PM 12, the NPY-IR neurons showed a tendency to change from bipolar cells with short processes into multipolar cells with long processes. Moreover, the population of NPY-IR neurons and nerve fibers in the AON increased in proportion to age. In particular, the number of NPY-IR neurons increased about 6-fold between PM 1 and PM 3. At PM 24, the number of NPY-IR neurons was much smaller than that at PM 12 and somal size had decreased. It is therefore suggested that the dramatic increase in the number and size of the NPY-IR neurons between PM 1 and PM 3 may be associated with sexual maturation and that the decrease in the number and cell size of the NPY-IR neurons at PM 24 may underlie age-related changes in the olfactory process.

CaR-mediated COX-2 expression in primary cultured mTAL cells

Primary cultures of medullary thick ascending limb (mTAL) cells retain the capacity to express calcium-sensing receptor (CaR) mRNA and protein. Increases in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA accumulation, protein expression, and PGE(2) synthesis were observed in a dose- and time-dependent manner after exposure of these cells to extracellular calcium (Ca(o)(2+)). Moreover, transfection of mTAL cells with a CaR overexpression vector significantly enhanced COX-2 expression and PGE(2) production in response to calcium compared with cells transfected with an empty vector. Challenge with the CaR-selective agonist poly-L-arginine (PLA) also increased COX-2 mRNA accumulation, protein expression, and PGE(2) synthesis. Furthermore, Ca(o)(2+)- and PLA-mediated PGE(2) production was abolished in the presence of NS-398 or nimesulide, two different COX-2-selective inhibitors. These data suggest that intracellular signaling mechanisms initiated via activation of CaR contribute to COX-2-dependent PGE(2) synthesis in the mTAL. Because Ca(o)(2+) concentration varies along Henle's loop, calcium may contribute to salt and water balance via a COX-2- and CaR-dependent mechanism. Thus novel calcimimetics might be useful in conditions such as hypertension in which manipulation of extracellular fluid volume provides beneficial effects.

Cholesterol-dependent interaction of syncollin with the membrane of the pancreatic zymogen granule

Syncollin is a protein of the pancreatic zymogen granule that was isolated through its ability to bind to syntaxin. Despite this in vitro interaction, it is now clear that syncollin is present on the luminal side of the zymogen granule membrane. Here we show that there are two pools of syncollin within the zymogen granule: one free in the lumen and the other tightly associated with the granule membrane. When unheated or cross-linked samples of membrane-derived syncollin are analysed by SDS/PAGE, higher-order forms are seen in addition to the monomer, which has an apparent molecular mass of 16 kDa. Extraction of cholesterol from the granule membrane by treatment with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin causes the detachment of syncollin, and this effect is enhanced at a high salt concentration. Purified syncollin is able to bind to brain liposomes at pH 5.0, but not at pH 11.0, a condition that also causes its extraction from granule membranes. Syncollin binds only poorly to dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine liposomes, but binding is dramatically enhanced by the inclusion of cholesterol. Finally, cholesterol can be co-immunoprecipitated with syncollin. We conclude that syncollin is able to interact directly with membrane lipids, and to insert into the granule membrane in a cholesterol-dependent manner. Membrane-associated syncollin apparently exists as a homo-oligomer, possibly consisting of six subunits, and its association with the membrane may be stabilized by electrostatic interactions with either other proteins or phospholipids.

Analysis of the association of syncollin with the membrane of the pancreatic zymogen granule

Syncollin is a pancreatic zymogen granule protein that was isolated through its ability to bind to syntaxin. Here we show that syncollin has a cleavable signal sequence and can be removed from granule membranes by washing with sodium carbonate. When membranes were subjected to Triton X-114 partitioning, syncollin was found predominantly in the aqueous phase, indicating that it is not sufficiently hydrophobic to be embedded in the membrane. Syncollin has intramolecular disulfide bonds and was accessible to water-soluble cross-linking and biotinylating reagents only when granules were lysed by sonication. These results indicate that syncollin is tightly bound to the luminal surface of the granule membrane. In situ, syncollin was resistant to proteases such as trypsin. When granule membranes were solubilized in ionic detergents such as deoxycholate, this trypsin resistance was maintained, and syncollin migrated on sucrose density gradients as a large (150 kDa) protein. In contrast, in non-ionic detergents such as Triton X-100, syncollin became partially sensitive to trypsin and behaved as a monomer. Syncollin in alkaline extracts of granule membranes was also monomeric. However, reduction of the pH regenerated the oligomeric form, which was insoluble. We conclude that syncollin exists as a homo-oligomer and that its ability to self-associate can be reversibly modulated via changes in pH. In light of our findings, we reassess the likely role of syncollin in the pancreatic acinar cell.

Cyclooxygenase-2 expression and function in the medullary thick ascending limb

The medullary thick ascending limb (MTAL) metabolizes arachidonic acid (AA) via cytochrome P-450 (CyP450)- and cyclooxygenase (COX)-dependent pathways. In the present study, we demonstrated that the COX-2-selective inhibitor, NS-398, prevented tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)- and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-mediated increases in PGE(2) production by cultured MTAL cells. Accumulation of COX-2, but not COX-1, mRNA increased when cells were challenged with TNF (1 nM) or PMA (1 microM). Pretreatment of cells for 30 min with actinomycin D (AcD, 1 microM) had little effect on COX-2 mRNA accumulation in unstimulated cells or in cells challenged with either TNF or PMA. Moreover, a posttranscriptional mechanism(s) appears to contribute significantly to COX-2 mRNA accumulation as pretreatment for 15 min with cycloheximide (CHX, 1 microM) caused a superinduction of COX-2 mRNA accumulation in unstimulated cells as well as in cells challenged with either TNF or PMA. Expression of COX-2 protein in unstimulated MTAL cells was attenuated by preincubation for 2 h with dexamethasone (Dex, 2 microM); however, Dex had little or no effect on COX-2 expression in cells challenged with either PMA or TNF. The time-dependent inhibition of 86Rb uptake by MTAL cells challenged with TNF was diminished by pretreating cells with NS-398. These data suggest that TNF-mediated induction of COX-2 protein expression accounted for the lag-time required for this cytokine to inhibit 86Rb uptake in MTAL cells.

Angiotensin II induces TNF production by the thick ascending limb: functional implications

The effects of angiotensin II (ANG II) on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) production were determined in freshly isolated tubules from the medullary thick ascending limb (MTAL). ANG II (10(-9) M) increased the accumulation of TNF mRNA associated with enhanced production of TNF by approximately five- to sixfold. ANG II also increased prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production by the MTAL in a dose-dependent manner and exerted biphasic differential effects on 86Rb uptake, depending on the exposure time of the tubules to the peptide and the doses used. Low-dose ANG II (10(-11) M) increased 86Rb uptake by MTAL tubules after a "short-term" (15 min) challenge, whereas uptake was inhibited after a "long-term" (3 h) incubation period. High-dose ANG II (10(-6) M) inhibited MTAL 86Rb uptake, irrespective of incubation time. Uptake of 86Rb was inhibited by approximately 60% in MTAL tubules that were challenged for 3 h with ANG II. The inhibitory action of ANG II was prevented by eliminating the participation of either TNF with antisera to the cytokine or PGE2 by inhibition of cyclooxygenase with indomethacin. We conclude that ANG II regulates TNF production in the MTAL, an interaction that affects 86Rb uptake via an eicosanoid-dependent mechanism in this nephron segment.

Endothelin-1 secretion by human fibroblasts in culture: effects of cell density and IFN-beta

Evidence is presented of ET-1 release by cultured human fibroblasts. Such a conclusion is supported by the parallelism in displacement curves obtained using dilutions of extracts prepared from fibroblast conditioned media and the synthetic ET-1 standards, and the significant time dependent increase in ET-1 content in media from IFN-beta treated human fibroblasts. An increase in cell density significantly elevated the total amount of ET-1 in the conditioned media, although a linear relationship between these two variables was not observed.

Absence of the 40-kDa form of (2'-5')oligoadenylate synthetase and its corresponding mRNA from skin fibroblasts derived from Alzheimer disease patients

Cultured skin fibroblasts derived from Alzheimer disease patients fail to express the 1.6-kilobase (kb) mRNA and the corresponding 40-kDa form of (2'-5')oligoadenylate (2-5A) synthetase when exposed to interferon. In addition, the 3.6-kb mRNA, which is present in normal fibroblasts, is barely detectable in the Alzheimer disease counterpart. The deficiency of the 2-5A synthetase 1.6-kb mRNA and its corresponding protein is not related to an impairment of interferon receptors but most probably represents an alteration in the expression of the 2-5A synthetase gene. The data have potential implications for the diagnosis of Alzheimer disease and demonstrate that the absence of a specific form of 2-5A synthetase is linked to a disease state.

Altered cell growth and induction of an interferon-responsive gene in fibroblast lines derived from patients with familial Alzheimer's disease

Cell growth and response to interferon (IFN) have been used to assess alteration in properties of cultured skin fibroblasts from patients with familial Alzheimer's Disease (AD). A comparison of the proliferative characteristics between "low" (7-11) and "high" (18-21) passage diploid fibroblasts from control and AD individuals shows that AD cells become severely restricted in their proliferative potential earlier than matched controls as a result of "in vitro aging". In addition, while control cells grow adequately in a serum-free, chemically-defined media (Nutridoma) (90-95% compared to FBS-supplemented media), AD cells grow poorly in Nutridoma (45-53% compared to FBS-supplemented media). An interferon (IFN)-inducible enzyme, 2'5'-oligoadenylate (2-5A) synthetase, is significantly reduced in IFN-treated AD cells compared to age-matched control cells in two cell passage-dependent manner. These data suggest that an intrinsic property of AD cells is the progressive reduced ability to interact with normal biologic signals provided by proteins such as interferons which in turn may contribute to the pathogenesis of AD.