An enriched maternal environment and stereotypies of sows differentially affect the neuro-epigenome of brain regions related to emotionality in their piglets

Epigenetic mechanisms are important modulators of neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring of animals challenged during pregnancy. Pregnant sows living in a confined environment are challenged with stress and lack of stimulation which may result in the expression of stereotypies (repetitive behaviours without an apparent function). Little attention has been devoted to the postnatal effects of maternal stereotypies in the offspring. We investigated how the environment and stereotypies of pregnant sows affected the neuro-epigenome of their piglets. We focused on the amygdala, frontal cortex, and hippocampus, brain regions related to emotionality, learning, memory, and stress response. Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were investigated in these brain regions of male piglets born from sows kept in an enriched vs a barren environment. Within the latter group of piglets, we compared the brain methylomes of piglets born from sows expressing stereotypies vs sows not expressing stereotypies. DMRs emerged in each comparison. While the epigenome of the hippocampus and frontal cortex of piglets is mainly affected by the maternal environment, the epigenome of the amygdala is mainly affected by maternal stereotypies. The molecular pathways and mechanisms triggered in the brains of piglets by maternal environment or stereotypies are different, which is reflected on the differential gene function associated to the DMRs found in each piglets' brain region . The present study is the first to investigate the neuro-epigenomic effects of maternal enrichment in pigs' offspring and the first to investigate the neuro-epigenomic effects of maternal stereotypies in the offspring of a mammal.

Poor welfare compromises testicle physiology in breeding boars

In commercial pig breeding farms, boars are often exposed to stressful situations, such as confined housing conditions, inadequate environmental temperature, food restriction, lameness, diseases, among other challenges. Confined housing conditions, such as crates, are reported as a major source of stress for pregnant sows, and were banned in the UK and in Europe, however there is limited information about the impact of this housing system for boars. The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of three different housing conditions for boars and the consequence on the testicles. We studied 27 crossbred boars (F1 large white and landrace), housed in crates (n = 9), pens (n = 9), or enriched pens (n = 9), during 10 weeks. We collected data of scrotal superficies mean temperature (SSMT) with a thermal camera; we measured testicular parenchyma perfusion (ultrasound evaluation); and we measured sperm characteristics. We found that boars housed in crates had a higher SSMT (p < 0.05) and higher testicular parenchyma perfusion than boars housed in pens and enriched pens (p = 0.01). Regarding the semen features, we found that boars housed in crates showed more agglutinated semen, and higher values of linear curved linear velocity (VCL) than boars housed in pens and enriched pens, both indicators of reduced fertility. These results indicates that boars housed in pens and in enriched pens showed better indicators of testicular health, better sperm motility features (VCL, p = 0.046), and less agglutinated sperm (p < 0;05) than that observed in boars kept in crates.

Vaginal Microbiota Diversity in Response to Lipopolysaccharide in Gilts Housed Under Three Housing Systems

The United Kingdom and European Union have banned crates for pregnant sows. However, animals are kept in a restrictive environment for up to four weeks after mating, leading to stress and different responses of the animals’ immune system. Here, we used vaginal flushing of gilts to investigate whether housing systems or an experimental inflammatory challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can modify the gilt vaginal microbiome. Alpha-diversity indices showed differences in the microbiota of gilts housed under different systems (q = 0.04). Shannon alpha-diversity richness was higher in gilts group-housed in pens than in gilts housed in crates (q = 0.035), but not higher than in other groups. The relative abundance of the operational taxonomic unit (OTU) (q < 0.05) revealed specific differences in housing systems before a LPS or saline (SAL control) challenge. We found different abundances in taxa of Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria in gilts housed in the different systems before challenge. After the LPS challenge, significant differences were detected in the relative abundance of OTUs (q < 0.05) for the LPS-challenged group compared with SAL animals for each housing system. The phylum Staphylococcus showed higher abundance among the LPS-challenged gilts than in SAL-challenged animals. Furthermore, Enterobacter was more abundant in the LPS-challenged gilts housed in crates than in SAL-challenged gilts housed in crates. Streptococcus suis, Conchiformibius, Globicatella and Actinobacillus were more abundant in LPS-challenged gilts in indoor group housing than in SAL gilts in the same housing system. Gilts kept outdoors did not show changes in vaginal microbiota after an LPS challenge. Gilts housed in crates showed clinical signs of urogenital infection, whereas gilts housed outdoors and in indoor group housing did not. The relationship between environment, immune response, and microbiota suggested that animals in a poor environments experience difficulties responding to a challenge and their vaginal microbiota is altered as a consequence, with decreased richness of normal vaginal microbiota, and increased opportunistic bacteria. Welfare indicators measured by gilts’ responses to housing systems however, do not fully explain mechanisms associated with the unique signature in vaginal microbiota encountered in the different housing systems.

Egg pricing and labeling on supermarkets in São Paulo

Brazil is a big table egg producer and consumer. Although battery cages are still the main production system in the country, growth in demand for specialty eggs can be identified from the growing availability of free-range and organic eggs in the market. The goal for this study was to report the prices of different table egg categories, varying in features such as eggshell color, package size or farming system, and to characterize the information available on labels. We investigated fifteen supermarket units, randomly distributed along the west side of the city of São Paulo, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Four data collections were performed throughout one year, in each unit. Our results indicate that organic eggs were the most expensive among different farming system categories. Furthermore, brown shell eggs were more expensive compared to white shell eggs, regardless of the farming system. Eggs sold in small packages were more expensive than eggs sold in large packages. Cage-free and organic eggs had labels with more informative content and, lastly, eggs with more detailed labels were related to higher prices.

Case report: the use of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol to monitor a group of abandoned donkeys

The objective of this study was to reach a diagnosis of the living conditions of abandoned donkeys kept in a restricted farm area through the assessment of their welfare level utilizing the AWIN protocol as a methodological tool. These animals were supposed to be sent to slaughter, but after the activity was temporarily banned, they were abandoned by traders. The protocol of welfare assessment was associated with general environmental and sanitary conditions. Information regarding the mortality rates was also gathered. According to the welfare assessment results, the living conditions of these animals were acceptable in some areas, despite the insufficient shade and shelter, a 3-month food restriction period, and a mortality rate of over 70%. These results demonstrate that welfare assessment protocols must be adapted to crises and databases for welfare indicators in diverse conditions must be created.

Two Hours of Separation Prior to Milking: Is This Strategy Stressful for Jennies and Their Foals?

Simple Summary

The economic importance of donkeys has decreased in Brazil, which has led to their mass abandonment. Asinine milk production is a potential solution to the reintroduction of donkeys into the Brazilian social and economic scenario. The milk has nutraceutical properties that make it valuable for human consumption, and thus a donkey dairy industry is likely to help stop their abandonment. That said, in any such industry, the welfare of jennies maintained for milk production must be guaranteed. Few studies have been published measuring the impact of milking management on the welfare of jennies and foals, and the potential behavioural and physiological challenges it may cause. It is also unknown whether these animals adapt to the milking routine. The goal of this study was to assess the impact of separating Pêga jennies from their foals for 2 h on indicators of welfare. Animal welfare was analysed through behavioural and hormonal assessments, their potential adaptive responses and effects on milk yield. Few significant alterations were found in behaviour, salivary cortisol concentrations, or milk yield as a result of the 2-h separation, which could indicate that the welfare of the animals was not compromised; however, the adaptation of jennies and foals to separation stress remains to be fully verified. The 2-h separation period, based on the reported data, is possibly not a stressful experience for the assessed group of Pêga jennies and foals. The reported protocol, which included frequent positive interactions with the animals, may be useful to assure acceptable animal welfare levels for donkeys in small-scale dairy production settings.

Abstract

The goal of this study was to assess whether or not a separation period of 2 h is stressful for jennies and foals, as measured by changes in behaviour, salivary cortisol, and milk production. This study was reviewed and approved by the Committee for the Use and Care of Animals in Research (CEUA) of the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the University of São Paulo. Fourteen multiparous Pêga jennies (245 kg average body weight) and their foals were assessed from day 45 to 135 of lactation. Dams and foals were separated for 2 h prior to milking. Behavioural assessments and saliva samples were collected before and after separation, every 15 days, resulting in 14 samples per individual animal. Behavioural states (affiliative and inactivity) and events (agonistic, abnormal, eliminative and vocalisations) of the jennies were observed during 6 min in both periods. Moreover, milk yield was measured. Few significant behavioural and salivary cortisol changes were observed, and milk yield was not affected by cortisol levels in response to the separation. The 2-h separation period, on the basis of the collected variables, did not appear to be stressful for the assessed group of Pêga jennies or foals; however, their ability to adapt to milking routine stress remains to be investigated.

Stereotypic Behavior in Sows Is Related to Emotionality Changes in the Offspring

Some effects of expressing stereotypic behavior have not yet been elucidated. During gestation, the environment has the potential to interfere with offspring development and to have prenatal or longer-term consequences. We tested the hypothesis that the occurrence of stereotypic behavior during gestation could affect the phenotype of the offspring. Twenty-eight pregnant sows were studied by comparing two groups differing in the amount of stereotypy shown. We analyzed emotionality in the offspring from sows showing high or low stereotypy frequency using the open field and novel object tests. In the open field test, piglets from sows with a high rate of stereotypies walked more in central sectors (p < 0.0001) and lateral sectors (p = 0.04) than piglets from sows with a low rate of stereotypies. In the novel object test, the offspring from low stereotypy sows vocalized more (p = 0.008). We demonstrate for the first time that the stereotypic behavior by the mother during gestation changes the phenotype of the offspring, in particular, their emotionality.

Sham-Chewing in Sows Is Associated With Decreased Fear Responses in Their Offspring

We hypothesized that sham-chewing expressed by the dam during gestation affects fetus programming. The goal of this study was to assess the effects of maternal sham-chewing on offspring welfare indicators, such as behavior and physiology. Sows that exhibited consistent sham-chewing on at least two of 6 days of observation (N = 7) were compared with sows that had never performed sham-chewing (non-sham-chewing sows; N = 4) during these 6 days. Salivary samples from sows and piglets were collected and cortisol concentrations were analyzed to assess the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activity as cortisol is a physiological indicator of welfare. Moreover, placental tissue was collected, right after farrowing, to assess cortisol and cortisone concentration. Piglet behavior and fear tests were performed after weaning (one couple per sow). In the fear tests, data was collected in an open field test to determine the states of fear indicators. Non-sham-chewing sows had lower concentrations of cortisol on days 91 and 92 of gestation in the morning. In addition to this, placental cortisol was higher among sham-chewing sows than non-sham-chewing sows. In the open field test, piglets born from non-sham-chewing sows demonstrated more latency to move in the arena and less activity, indicating more fear. Based on our data, we concluded that the expression of maternal sham-chewing is related to less fear in their offspring. Although stereotypies have been studied, attention has not been devoted to the effects of the prenatal period in considering a fetal reprogramming approach.

Piglets Born from Sows Fed High Fibre Diets during Pregnancy Are Less Aggressive Prior to Weaning

Aggressive interactions, and their consequences, are the most important causes of poor welfare in piglets. Aggressive behaviour can be modulated by the prenatal and neonatal environment in several species. Commercially kept pregnant sows are often subjected to food restriction, which can compromise their welfare. Limited information is available on the consequences of sow hunger during pregnancy on welfare outcomes for their piglets. High fibre diets can mitigate the feeling of hunger and, consequently, it may improve welfare and productivity measures. The aim of this study was to assess the consequences of feeding pregnant gilts with high fibre diets (HFD) on agonistic behaviour, as manifested by skin lesions, and indicators of fear in their piglets at weaning. Twenty-two pregnant gilts were fed either HFD, 12.86% of crude fibre, 2.4 kg per day (N = 14), or low fibre diet (LFD), 2.53% of crude fibre, 2.0 kg per day (N = 8). During lactation, both treatments received the same diet, ad libitum. We investigated the impact of HFD on behaviour and performance measures (birth weight, average daily gain, weaning weight, see S3 File) in the offspring. Skin lesions were evaluated before and after weaning in 156 piglets (100 HFD and 56 LFD), and 142 piglets were subjected to an open field test and a novel object test (87 HFD and 55 LFD). We found no treatment effect on the performance measures. Piglets born from gilts that received HFD had fewer skin lesions before weaning (D28) than the offspring of LFD gilts, while no difference was found during days 29 and 30. In the open field and novel object tests, there was no treatment effect on the behaviour of piglets. The improved skin health at weaning in piglets of sows fed HFD suggests less agonistic interactions amongst these littermates than in piglets of sows fed LFD.