Ultraviolet-based synergistic processes for wastewater disinfection: A review

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is widely used for wastewater disinfection but suffers from low inactivation rates and can cause photoreactivation of microorganisms. Synergistic disinfection with UV and oxidants is promising for enhancing the inactivation performance. This review summarizes the inactivation effects on representative microorganisms by UV/hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), UV/ozone (O₃), UV/persulfate (PS), UV/chlorine, and UV/chlorine dioxide (ClO₂). UV synergistic processes perform better than UV or an oxidant alone. UV mainly attacks the DNA or RNA in microorganisms; the oxidants H₂O₂ and O₃ mainly attack the cell walls, cell membranes, and other external structures; and HOCl and ClO₂ enter cells and oxidize proteins and enzymes. Free radicals can have strong oxidation effects on cell walls, cell membranes, proteins, enzymes, and even DNA. At similar UV doses, the inactivation rates of Escherichia coli with UV alone, UV/H₂O₂, UV/O₃, UV/PS (peroxydisulfate or peroxymonosulfate), and UV/chlorinated oxidant (chlorine, ClO₂, and NH₂Cl) range from 2.03 to 3.84 log, 2.62-4.30 log, 4.02-6.08 log, 2.93-5.07 log, and 3.78-6.55 log, respectively. The E. coli inactivation rates are in the order of UV/O₃ ≈ UV/Cl₂ > UV/PS > UV/H₂O₂. This order is closely related to the redox potentials of the oxidants and quantum yields of the radicals. UV synergistic disinfection processes inhibit photoreactivation of E. coli in the order of UV/O₃ > UV/PS > UV/H₂O₂. The activation mechanisms and formation pathways of free radicals with different UV-based synergistic processes are presented. In addition to generating HO·, O₃ can reduce the turbidity and chroma of wastewater to increase UV penetration, which improves the disinfection performance of UV/O₃. This knowledge will be useful for further development of the UV-based synergistic disinfection processes.

Reduction of byproduct formation and cytotoxicity to mammalian cells during post-chlorination by the combined pretreatment of ferrate(VI) and biochar

Ferrate [Fe(VI)] can efficiently degrade various pollutants in wastewater. Biochar application can reduce resource use and waste emission. This study investigated the performance of Fe(VI)/biochar pretreatment to reduce disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and cytotoxicity to mammalian cells of wastewater during post-chlorination. Fe(VI)/biochar was more effective at inhibiting the cytotoxicity formation than Fe(VI) alone, reducing the cytotoxicity from 12.7 to 7.6 mg-phenol/L. The concentrations of total organic chlorine and total organic bromine decreased from 277 to 130 μg/L and from 51 to 39 μg/L, compared to the samples without pretreatment. Orbitrap ultra-high resolution mass spectrometry revealed that the number of molecules of DBPs decreased substantially from 517 to 229 by Fe(VI)/biochar, with the greatest reduction for phenols and highly unsaturated aliphatic compounds. In combination with the substantial reduction of 1Cl-DBPs and 2Cl-DBPs, 1Br-DBPs and 2Br-DBPs were also reduced. Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix coupled with parallel factor analysis suggested that fulvic acid-like substances and aromatic amino acid was obviously reduce likely due to the enhanced oxidation of Fe(IV)/Fe(V) produced by Fe(VI)/biochar and adsorption of biochar. Furthermore, the DBPs generated by electrophilic addition and electrophilic substitution of precursors were reduced. This study shows that Fe(VI)/biochar pretreatment can effectively reduce cytotoxicity formation during post-chlorination by transforming DBPs and their precursors.

Self-Powered Disinfection Using Triboelectric, Conductive Wires of Metal-Organic Frameworks

Efficient water disinfection is vitally needed in rural and disaster-stricken areas lacking power supplies. However, conventional water disinfection methods strongly rely on external chemical input and reliable electricity. Herein, we present a self-powered water disinfection system using synergistic hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) assisted electroporation mechanisms driven by triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) that harvest electricity from the flow of water. The flow-driven TENG, assisted by power management systems, generates a controlled output with aimed voltages to drive a conductive metal-organic framework nanowire array for effective H₂O₂ generation and electroporation. The injured bacteria caused by electroporation can be further damaged by facile diffused H₂O₂ molecules at high throughput. A self-powered disinfection prototype enables complete disinfection (>99.9999% removal) over a wide range of flows up to 3.0 × 10⁴ L/(m² h) with low water flow thresholds (200 mL/min; ∼20 rpm). This rapid, self-powered water disinfection method is promising for pathogen control.

Degradation of antibiotics by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs): Performance, mechanisms, and perspectives

Global consumption and discharge of antibiotics have led to the rapid development and spread of bacterial antibiotic resistance. Among treatment strategies, electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) are gaining popularity for treating water/wastewater containing antibiotics due to their high efficiency and easiness of operation. In this review, we summarize various forms of EAOPs that contribute to antibiotic degradation, including common electrochemical oxidation (EO), electrolyte enhanced EO, electro-Fenton (EF) processes, EF-like process, and EAOPs coupling with other processes. Then we assess the performance of various EAOPs in antibiotic degradation and discuss the influence of key factors, including electrode, initial concentration and type of antibiotic, operation conditions, electrolyte, and water quality. We also review mechanisms and degradation pathways of various antibiotics degradation by EAOPs, and address the species and toxicity of intermediates produced during antibiotics treatment. Finally, we highlight challenges and critical research needs to facilitate the application of EAOPs in antibiotic treatment.

Synergistic Nanowire-Enhanced Electroporation and Electrochlorination for Highly Efficient Water Disinfection

Conventional water disinfection methods such as chlorination typically involve the generation of harmful disinfection byproducts and intensive chemical consumption. Emerging electroporation disinfection techniques using nanowire-enhanced local electric fields inactivate microbes by damaging their outer structures without byproduct formation or chemical dosing. However, this physical-based method suffers from a limited inactivation efficiency under high water flux due to an insufficient contact time. Herein, we integrate electrochlorination with nanowire-enhanced electroporation to achieve a synergistic flow-through process for efficient water disinfection targeting bacteria and viruses. Electroporation at the cathode induces sub-lethal damages on the microbial outer structures. Subsequently, electrogenerated active chlorine at the anode aggravates these electroporation-induced injuries to the level of lethal damage. This sequential flow-through disinfection system achieves complete disinfection (>6.0-log) under a very high water flux of 2.4 × 10⁴ L/(m² h) with an applied voltage of 2.0 V. This disinfection efficiency is 8 times faster than that of electroporation alone. Further, the specific energy consumption for the disinfection by this novel process is extremely low (8 × 10^-4 kW h/m³). Our results demonstrate a promising method for rapid and energy-efficient water disinfection by coupling electroporation with electrochlorination to meet vital needs for pathogen elimination.

Photolysis of free chlorine and production of reactive radicals in the UV/chlorine system using polychromatic spectrum LEDs as UV sources

Recently, ultraviolet light-emitting diodes (UV-LEDs) and chlorine combined system has been employed as an emerging advanced oxidation process. However, UV-LEDs were commonly considered as monochromatic UV sources. In this study, the obvious quantum yields of chlorine photolysis under 265 nm and 280 nm LEDs irradiations were investigated with treating LEDs as polychromatic UV sources. Particularly, Φ_obs-poly of HOCl and OCl⁻ for 265 nm LED were found to be 1.50 and 0.70 mol E^-1, respectively, whereas Φ_obs-poly of HOCl and OCl⁻ for 280 nm LED were 1.28 and 0.64 mol E^-1, respectively. It was identified that Φ_obs-poly were 5.66-14.63 % lower than Φ_obs-mono. This suggests that obvious quantum yield using peak emission wavelength would overestimate the true quantum yield. The production of radical species in LED UV/chlorine systems were determined by the degradation of BA, and illustrated by a mathematical model. Different trends were observed for 265 nm and 280 nm LED UV/chlorine systems as pH increased from 5.0 to 10.0. As pH increased, the formation of OH continuously decreased in both 265 nm and 280 nm LED systems. The formation of Cl increased at neutral pH and more Cl and OH were formed due to the higher molar absorbance coefficient at 280 nm. The chlorine dose-dependent effects on radical productions at pH of 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 were also assessed. At pH of 5.0, OH was the main radical product and had linear correlation with chlorine dose. At pH of 7.5, the productions of OH and Cl showed similar profiles that increased rapidly at low chlorine dosage and then slowed down.

Emerging Energy Harvesting Materials and Devices for Self-Powered Water Disinfection

Contaminated drinking water is one of the main pathogen transmission pathways making waterborne illnesses such as diarrheal diseases and gastroenteritis a huge threat to public health, especially in the areas where sanitation facilities and gird power are inadequate such as rural and disaster hit areas. Self-powered water disinfection systems are a promising solution in these cases. In this review paper, the authors provide an overview of the new and emerging methods of applying energy harvesting materials and devices as a source of power for water disinfection systems microbial disinfection in water by harnessing ambient forms of energy such as mechanical motion, light, and heat into electricity. The authors begin with a brief introduction of the different energy harvesting technologies commonly applied in water disinfection; triboelectric, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and photovoltaic effects. Various microbial disinfection mechanisms and types of device construction are summarized. Then, a detailed discussion of the energy harvester-driven water disinfection process is provided. Finally, challenges and perspectives regarding the future development of self-powered water disinfection are described.

Solar-induced hybrid energy harvesters for advanced oxidation water treatment

Water treatment based on advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) supplies clean water to rural areas lacking electric power supply and/or during natural disasters and pandemics. Considering the abundance of solar energy in the ambient environment, the solar-driven AOPs show an interesting potential to driving the water purification process. Involving the energy harvester (EH) that harvests mechanical or thermal energy into electricity to the solar-driven AOPs can achieve sustainable and self-powered water purification. Herein, we summarize the recent progress in the application of solar-induced hybrid EHs that harvest solar and mechanical/thermal energy simultaneously to drive AOP water treatment. A detailed discussion of the solar-induced hybrid EHs enabling AOP water treatment based on the mechanisms of piezo-, tribo-, pyro-, and thermo-assisted photocatalysis is provided. In addition, this paper explores future opportunities and strategies of the solar-induced hybrid EHs to drive the AOP water treatment in actual situations with unstable and fluctuating environmental conditions.

Triboelectrification induced self-powered microbial disinfection using nanowire-enhanced localized electric field

Air-transmitted pathogens may cause severe epidemics showing huge threats to public health. Microbial inactivation in the air is essential, whereas the feasibility of existing air disinfection technologies meets challenges including only achieving physical separation but no inactivation, obvious pressure drops, and energy intensiveness. Here we report a rapid disinfection method toward air-transmitted bacteria and viruses using the nanowire-enhanced localized electric field to damage the outer structures of microbes. This air disinfection system is driven by a triboelectric nanogenerator that converts mechanical vibration to electricity effectively and achieves self-powered. Assisted by a rational design for the accelerated charging and trapping of microbes, this air disinfection system promotes microbial transport and achieves high performance: >99.99% microbial inactivation within 0.025 s in a fast airflow (2 m/s) while only causing low pressure drops (<24 Pa). This rapid, self-powered air disinfection method may fill the urgent need for air-transmitted microbial inactivation to protect public health.

Construction and optimization mechanisms of carbon fiber-based flow-through electrode system (FES) with stackable multi-cathode units for water disinfection

The stackable carbon fiber-based flow-through systems (m(nC + 1A)) were constructed, where the multi-cathode units (nC + 1A) were equipped with multiple cathodes (nC) and a counter anode (1A), and the m was the stackable numbers of the nC + 1A units. The configuration of the m(nC + 1A) systems with m and n values from 1 to 6 was optimized by comparing their disinfection performance toward a model pathogen (Escherichia coli) from the aspects of disinfection ability, energy consumption and HRT. For multi-cathode units (nC + 1A), increasing the cathode numbers (n) promoted the E. coli inactivation by the predominant direct oxidation on the anode. Among the stackable m(nC + 1A) modules, the 3(3C + 1A) module was recommended as the best configuration. In the stackable 3(3C + 1A) module with consecutive reduction-oxidation processes, the E. coli inactivation mechanisms were attributed to the direct oxidation on the anodes and H₂O₂-induced indirect oxidation on the cathodes. The synergistic effect between the stackable 3C + 1A units promoted the electro-redox of the electrodes and their disinfection ability, which was also accompanied by the enhancement of energy consumption for O₂/H₂O₂ mutual transformation on the electrodes. In turn, the modules with excessive stackable unit numbers (m > 3) over-promoted the competitive reaction of O₂/H₂O₂ mutual transformation, restraining the disinfection performance.

Evaluation and prospects of nanomaterial-enabled innovative processes and devices for water disinfection: A state-of-the-art review

This study provided an overview of established and emerging nanomaterial (NM)-enabled processes and devices for water disinfection for both centralized and decentralized systems. In addition to a discussion of major disinfection mechanisms, data on disinfection performance (shortest contact time for complete disinfection) and energy efficiency (electrical energy per order; E_EO) were collected enabling assessments firstly for disinfection processes and then for disinfection devices. The NM-enabled electro-based disinfection process gained the highest disinfection efficiency with the lowest energy consumption compared with physical-based, peroxy-based, and photo-based disinfection processes owing to the unique disinfection mechanism and the direct mean of translating energy input to microbes. Among the established disinfection devices (e.g., the stirred, the plug-flow, and the flow-through reactor), the flow-through reactor with mesh/membrane or 3-dimensional porous electrodes showed the highest disinfection performance and energy efficiency attributed to its highest mass transfer efficiency. Additionally, we also summarized recent knowledge about current and potential NMs separation and recovery methods as well as electrode strengthening and optimization strategies. Magnetic separation and robust immobilization (anchoring and coating) are feasible strategies to prompt the practical application of NM-enabled disinfection devices. Magnetic separation effectively solved the problem for the separation of evenly distributed particle-sized NMs from microbial solution and robust immobilization increased the stability of NM-modified electrodes and prevented these electrodes from degradation by hydraulic detachment and/or electrochemical dissolution. Furthermore, the study of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was capable of simulating NM-enabled devices, which showed great potential for system optimization and reactor expansion. In this overview, we stressed the need to concern not only the treatment performance and energy efficiency of NM-enabled disinfection processes and devices but also the overall feasibility of system construction and operation for practical application.

Effects of chlorine disinfection on the membrane fouling potential of bacterial strains isolated from fouled reverse osmosis membranes

Biofouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes is an inevitable issue in wastewater reclamation and limits the application of RO systems. Chlorine disinfection is widely used as a pretreatment to control biofouling. However, the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and cellular inclusions released during chlorine disinfection might also cause membrane fouling. Furthermore, little is known regarding the chlorine resistance of bacterial strains found on fouled RO membranes. In this study, four bacterial strains isolated from fouled RO membranes were used as testing subjects to investigate the bacterial inactivation performance of chlorine disinfection. The effects of chlorine disinfection on the RO membrane fouling potential of these strains were also revealed. The chlorine resistance ability of Sphingopyxis sp. BM1-1 was strongest among the four strains as it secretes the highest amount of EPS per cell. The log inactivation efficiency of this strain was 1-log by 0.2 mg-Cl₂/L in 30 min, which was one to three orders of magnitude lower than that of the other strains. Although chlorine disinfection inactivated most bacterial cells (>90%), the reaction with chlorine significantly increased the RO membrane fouling potential of all bacterial solutions. To elucidate the main mechanism behind the increase in the fouling potential, we further investigated the changes in the properties of EPS, and the release of EPS and cellular inclusions during chlorine disinfection. Chlorine disinfection did not significantly affect the RO membrane fouling potential of the EPS secreted by these bacterial strains. However, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), protein, polysaccharide, and DNA concentration of all bacterial solutions increased by one to nine times after chlorine disinfection. These results indicate that large amounts of EPS and cellular inclusions were released into the solutions after the reaction with chlorine, which was the main cause of the increase in RO membrane fouling potential of the bacterial solution after chlorine disinfection.

Combination of catalytic ozonation by regenerated granular activated carbon (rGAC) and biological activated carbon in the advanced treatment of textile wastewater for reclamation

Wastewater reclamation in the textile industry has attracted considerable attention. In this study, catalytic ozonation by regenerated granular activated carbon (rGAC) and its combination with biological activated carbon (BAC) was investigated for the reclamation of a real bio-treated dyeing and finishing wastewater (BDFW). Catalytic ozonation by rGAC (O₃/rGAC) was 1.6-2.0 times more efficient than ozonation alone for pollutants degradation. Although iron oxide loaded rGAC (rGAC-Fe) improved the performance of catalytic ozonation by 14%-25%, but was labile (<2 days) compared to stable rGAC (>20 days). Catalytic ozonation improved the generation of ^•OH, contributing 1.1-1.7 times faster of chromophores decomposition and 0.24-0.55 times more increase of biodegradability than ozonation. However, catalytic ozonation increased the acute toxicity of BDFW by two times. The combination of O₃/rGAC and BAC can synergistically reduce COD, chromophores, and color in BDFW during 45-day's continuous operation, the improvements than O₃/rGAC being 21.0%, 18.8%, and 13.6%, respectively. Moreover, although O₃/rGAC of BDFW increased the toxicity from 98.3 to 146.5 μg-HgCl₂/L, post BAC significantly reduced the toxicity to 13.1 μg-HgCl₂/L. Engineering practice of water reclamation by O₃/rGAC-BAC was approved to be feasible based on both the water quality of treated water and the operation cost.

Efficient nanowire-assisted electroporation and cellular inclusion release of microalgal cells achieved by a low voltage

A mild and low-energy cell disruption method with high efficiency has growing application potential in both the extraction of high-value microalgal products and the inactivation of microalgal cells. Conventional technologies available have disadvantages including high energy consumption, the use of chemicals and so on. Here, this study developed an efficient microalgal cell disruption method using the copper oxide nanowire (CuONW)-modified three-dimensional (3D) copper foam electrodes with a low applied voltage. Electrodes with nanowires synthesized at 400 °C, the optimal preparation temperature, achieved efficient microalgal cell electroporation. Microalgal cells were completely inactivated and disrupted at the voltage of 2 V with the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 10 s. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed obvious electroporation damage on the cell surface upon electroporation-treatment (2 V, 30 s). The amount of released cellular inclusion increased significantly with prolonged HRT and the energy consumption of this technology was only 0.014 kWh/kg via the treatment of 2 V and 10 s. This study provided a novel, energy-efficient and chemical-free technique for both microalgal products extraction and cell inactivation.

Chlorine disinfection significantly aggravated the biofouling of reverse osmosis membrane used for municipal wastewater reclamation

In reverse osmosis (RO) system for wastewater reclamation, biofouling is an inevitable issue. Chlorine disinfection is commonly used in pretreatment to control biofouling. Some chlorine-resistant bacteria could survive after chlorine disinfection and the microbial community structure in feed water changes significantly, thus leading to the change of biofouling potential. In this study, the effect of chlorine disinfection on the biofouling of RO membrane was investigated using a laboratory cross-flow RO system. Chlorine disinfection inactivated most bacteria in feed water. However, during the operation of RO system, with the increase of chlorine dosage the flux decline became more severe after a period of operation. The final normalized flux after 21 days was 0.27, 0.26, 0.20, and 0.21 with 0, 1, 5, and 15 mg-Cl₂/L chlorine as pretreatment, respectively. After the operation, the numbers of active bacteria in the foulants on the fouled membrane were on the same level regardless of the chlorine dosage, whereas the thickness of the foulants increased with the chlorine dosage significantly. Additionally, the higher total organic carbon concentration indicated more extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in foulants. Microbial community structure analysis showed that the abundance and the species number of chlorine-resistant bacteria increased significantly with the chlorine dosage. Typical chlorine-resistant bacteria, including Methylobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Acinetobacter, were identified as significantly distinctive genera in the foulants after the pretreatment by 15 mg-Cl₂/L chlorine. Compared with the bacteria without chlorine disinfection, these remaining bacteria produced more EPS with higher molecular weight, which could be the major contribution to more severe RO membrane fouling after chlorine disinfection.

Carbon Fiber-Based Flow-Through Electrode System (FES) for Water Disinfection via Direct Oxidation Mechanism with a Sequential Reduction-Oxidation Process

Flow-through configuration for electrochemical disinfection is considered as a promising approach to minimize the formation of toxic byproducts and energy consumption via the enhanced convective mass transport as compared with conventional flow-by one. Under this hydrodynamic condition, it is essential to ascertain the effect of sequential electro-redox processes with the cathode/anode then anode/cathode arrangements on disinfection performance. Here, carbon fiber felt (CFF) was utilized to construct two flow-through electrode systems (FESs) with sequential reduction-oxidation (cathode-anode) or oxidation-reduction (anode-cathode) processes to systematically compare their disinfection performance toward a model Escherichia coli ( E. coli) pathogen. In-situ sampling and live/dead backlight staining experiments revealed that E. coli inactivation mainly occurred on anode via an adsorption-inactivation-desorption process. In reduction-oxidation system, after the cathode-pretreatment, bulk solution pH increased significantly, leading to the negative charge of E. coli cells. Hence, E. coli cells were adsorbed and inactivated easily on the subsequent anode, finally resulting in its much better disinfection performance and energy efficiency than the oxidation-reduction system. Application of 3.0 V resulted in ∼6.5 log E. coli removal at 1500 L m^-2 h^-1 (50 mL min^-1), suggesting that portable devices can be designed from CFF-based FES with potential application for point-of-use water disinfection.

Occurrence of super antibiotic resistance genes in the downstream of the Yangtze River in China: Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles

The super antibiotic resistance genes (SARGs) demonstrate more severe threats than other antibiotic resistance genes while have not received enough attention in the environment. The study explored the prevalence and the antibiotic tolerance profiles of two typical SARGs, MCR-1 and NDM-1, and their hosting bacteria in the downstream of the Yangtze River and the nearby wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Results indicated that MCR-1 and NDM-1 were prevalent in the influent and biological units of the WWTP. Their hosting bacteria were effectively removed, but 2.49 × 10⁸ copies/L MCR-1 and 7.00 × 10⁶ copies/L NDM-1 were still persistent in the effluent. In the Yangtze River, MCR-1 and NDM-1 were detected with higher abundance and antibiotic tolerance than the WWTP effluent and were significantly affected by nearby water contamination and human activities. In the DWTP, MCR-1 and NDM-1 were detected with average values 5.56 × 10⁷ copies/L and 2.14 × 10⁵ copies/L in the influent. Their hosting bacteria were undetectable in the effluent, but the two SARGs were still persistent with 1.39 × 10⁷ copies/L and 6.29 × 10⁴ copies/L, and were greatly enriched in the sludge. Molecular ecological networks demonstrated wide hosting relationships between MCR-1/NDM-1 and bacteria community in the DWTP. Redundancy analysis found that MCR-1 positively correlated with COD and NH₃-N, while negatively correlated with turbidity. Additionally, MCR-1 hosting bacteria positively correlated with NO₃^--N and negatively correlated with COD and NH₃-N. NDM-1 positively correlated with turbidity and NDM-1 hosting bacteria positively correlated with COD and NO₂^--N. The study demonstrated that the WWTP could not effectively remove SARGs with high amount of them being discharged into the Yangtze River. Then they were transported into the DWTP and the persistent SARGs in the effluent would probably be transferred into human, thus imposing great threats on public health.

Different bacterial species and their extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) significantly affected reverse osmosis (RO) membrane fouling potentials in wastewater reclamation

Biofouling represents the "Achilles' heel" for reverse osmosis (RO) processes due to the growth of bacteria and their production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). Although the microbial community structure on the RO membrane has been analysed previously, the bacterial species with a high potential of causing RO membrane fouling have not yet been identified clearly. The key components in EPSs causing RO membrane fouling have not been revealed either. In this study, seven different bacterial species were isolated from fouled RO membranes, and their EPSs were analysed in terms of the content of polysaccharides and proteins, fluorescence characteristics and molecular weight (MW) distributions. The membrane fouling potentials of these bacterial species and EPSs were evaluated based on normalized flux decline. Generally, under the same growth conditions, bacterial species with higher EPS concentrations, rather than higher cell numbers, resulted in more severe flux decline. The flux decline showed an apparent positive correlation with the EPS concentration, indicating that the concentration of EPS rather than the bacterial number mainly contributed to biofouling. Furthermore, it was found that the MW distribution was the key factor affecting the RO membrane fouling potential of EPSs from different bacterial species. With the increase in the percentage of the high-MW fraction (>10 kDa) in the EPSs from 12.6% to 74.4%, the normalized flux decline increased from 0.4 to 0.59. The components in EPSs with a MW over 10 kDa were also separated by the ultrafiltration membrane and were proven to have a higher membrane fouling potential.

Cell Transport Prompts the Performance of Low-Voltage Electroporation for Cell Inactivation

The inactivation of pathogens in liquids has broad applications, ranging from water disinfection to food pasteurization. However, common cell inactivation methods (e.g., chlorination, ultraviolet radiation and thermal treatment) have significant drawbacks such as carcinogenic byproduct formation, energy intensiveness and/or nutrient structure destruction. Here, we fabricated a new approach to address these challenges by applying a low-voltage electroporation disinfection cell (EDC) and investigate the critical mechanisms of cell transport to allow high inactivation performance. The EDC prototypes were equipped with two one-dimensional (1D) nanostructure-assisted electrodes that enabled high electric field strength (>107 V m⁻¹) near the electrode surface with a low applied voltage (1 V). We have identified that during electroporation disinfection, electrophoresis, dielectrophoresis and hydraulic flow are the three major mechanisms which transport cells into the vicinity of the electrode surface to achieve superior disinfection performance. The EDC treated 70 ml of bacteria sample with an initial cell concentration of 10⁷ CFU ml⁻¹ and achieved complete bacteria inactivation (survival rate <0.00001%; no live bacteria detected). Our findings will help to establish a foundation for the future development and implementation of low-voltage electroporation for cell inactivation.

Synergistic effect of combined UV-LED and chlorine treatment on Bacillus subtilis spore inactivation

An ultraviolet (UV)-based advanced oxidation process (AOP) for disinfecting water is introduced in this paper. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of UV light-emitting diodes (UV-LEDs)/chlorine AOP (UV/Cl₂) for Bacillus subtilis spore inactivation. Chlorine was combined with 265 and 280 nm LEDs (UV₂₆₅/Cl₂, UV₂₈₀/Cl₂) and investigated. The addition of 4.0 mg/L of free chlorine at pH 7.0 in the presence of 125 mJ/cm² of UV irradiation resulted in an additional 1.8-log reduction in UV₂₆₅/Cl₂ and 1.5-log reduction in UV₂₈₀/Cl₂. There was no observed enhancement in spore inactivation with the addition of a radical scavenger, t-BuOH, which indicated the role of ^•OH in the synergistic effect. To quantitatively evaluate the synergism, the primary treatment with UV/Cl₂ was followed by further UV or Cl₂ treatment. After UV/Cl₂ pretreatment at different pH levels, the 265 and 280 nm LEDs treatment enhanced an approximate 0.4-0.5-log reduction compared to UV only, and Cl₂ treatment enhanced an approximate 0.7-1.1-log reduction compared to Cl₂ only. In addition, at pH 7.0, in UV₂₆₅/Cl₂-Cl₂ and UV₂₈₀/Cl₂-Cl₂, the inactivation rate constant k increased by approximately 2 and 1.5 times, respectively. The CT for the lag phases (CT_lag) reduced to approximately 67 and 58%, respectively. Similar results were obtained at pH 7.5 and 8.0, and in the secondary effluent. The synergistic effect on spore inactivation suggested that the pathogen inactivation efficiency of sequential UV and chlorine disinfection processes, which are commonly applied, can be significantly enhanced by adding chlorine prior to UV treatment.

Comparison of UV-LED and low pressure UV for water disinfection: Photoreactivation and dark repair of Escherichia coli

Studies on ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) water disinfection have shown advantages, such as safety, flexible design, and lower starting voltages. However, information about reactivation after UV-LED disinfection is limited, which is an important issue of UV light-based technology. In this study, the photoreactivation and dark repair of Escherichia coli after UV-LEDs and low pressure (LP) UV disinfection were compared. Four UV-LED units, 265 nm, 280 nm, the combination of 265 + 280 (50%), and 265 + 280 (75%) were tested. 265 nm LEDs was more effective than 280 nm LEDs and LP UV lamps for E. coli inactivation. No synergic effect for disinfection was observed from the combination of 265 and 280 nm LEDs. 265 nm LEDs had no different reactivation performances with that of LP UV, while 280 nm LEDs could significantly repress photoreactivation and dark repair at a low irradiation intensity of 6.9 mJ/cm². Furthermore, the UV-induced damage of 280 nm LEDs was less repaired which was determined by endonuclease sensitive site (ESS) assay. The impaired protein activities by 280 nm LEDs might be one of the reasons that inhibited reactivation. A new reactivation rate constant, K_max, was introduced into the logistic model to simulate the reactivation data, which showed positive relationship with the maximum survival ratio and was more reasonable to interpret the results of photoreactivation and dark repair. This study revealed the distinct roles of different UV lights in disinfection and reactivation, which is helpful for the future design of UV-LED equipment.

Nanowire-Modified Three-Dimensional Electrode Enabling Low-Voltage Electroporation for Water Disinfection

More than 10% of the people in the world still suffer from inadequate access to clean water. Traditional water disinfection methods (e.g., chlorination and ultraviolet radiation) include concerns about the formation of carcinogenic disinfection byproducts (DBPs), pathogen reactivation, and/or excessive energy consumption. Recently, a nanowire-assisted electroporation-disinfection method was introduced as an alternative. Here, we develop a new copper oxide nanowire (CuONW)-modified three-dimensional copper foam electrode using a facile thermal oxidation approach. An electroporation-disinfection cell (EDC) equipped with two such electrodes has achieved superior disinfection performance (>7 log removal and no detectable bacteria in the effluent). The disinfection mechanism of electroporation guarantees an exceedingly low operation voltage (1 V) and level of energy consumption (25 J L(-1)) with a short contact time (7 s). The low operation voltage avoids chlorine generation and thus reduces the potential of DBP formation. Because of irreversible electroporation damage on cell membranes, no regrowth and/or reactivation of bacteria occurs during storage after EDC treatment. Water disinfection using EDCs has great potential for practical applications.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of forensic science casework in the People's Republic of China

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis for the purpose of individualization is now being used in casework in the People's Republic of China. This report describes the use of the multilocus minisatellite probe 33.15 to solve three cases, including two homicides and a rape. In the third case, fetal tissue was analyzed to prove that the alleged rapist was, in fact, the father. In each case, analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) resulted in a positive match. The probability of chance association of the DNA fingerprint was calculated as 5.6 x 10(-12), which is similar to the figures reported in the literature.