From adverse childhood experiences to harsh parenting: Psychological symptoms as a mediator

BACKGROUND

Research evidence has demonstrated a direct link between ACEs and harsh parenting. However, the mechanisms linking paternal ACEs to harsh parenting have remained largely unexplored among Asian populations.

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we examined the relationships between parental ACEs and harsh parenting and explored the potential mediating effect of psychological symptoms on the relationship between parental ACEs and harsh parenting.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

A total of 6195 Taiwanese parents of children aged 6 to 12 were recruited from 58 primary schools in the Taiwanese cities of Taipei and New Taipei.

METHOD

Using probability-proportional-to-size sampling and a self-report survey, we collected data relating to parental ACEs, psychological symptoms, and child-rearing behaviors. A hierarchical regression analysis was completed to examine the effects of parental ACEs and psychological symptoms on harsh parenting. In addition, we tested the potential mediating effects of psychological symptoms on the relationship between parental ACEs and harsh parenting by employing a simple mediation model (PROCESS) with a bootstrapping procedure.

RESULTS

We found that both parental ACEs and psychological symptoms were significant predictors for mothers' and fathers' adoption of harsh parenting behaviors. Moreover, after adjusting for covariates, we discovered the unique finding that psychological symptoms mediated the relationship between parental ACEs and harsh parenting among Taiwanese parents.

CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed a direct link between parental ACEs and harsh parenting, with psychological symptoms serving as a mediator. Our findings suggest that trauma-recovery programs should promote regular screening and interventions for parents with ACEs.

Are Discrepancies Between Father and Adolescent Perceptions of Harsh Parenting and Conflict Associated with Adolescent Mental Health Symptoms?

Though differences in informant perceptions of family processes are associated with poorer health, few studies have examined discrepancies between father- and adolescent-report of family phenomena and their impact on adolescent mental health. This study examined how father and adolescent-reported parenting and the differences in their perceptions is related to adolescent mental health. Participants were 326 father-adolescent dyads (Fathers: Mage = 41.2; Adolescents: 7th grade students, Mage = 12.0, 48.5% female). Overall, analyses revealed significant main effects of father and/or adolescent report of father-adolescent conflict and harsh parenting on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Analyses revealed two instances in which discrepancies between father- and adolescent-report of family phenomena was related to adolescent mental health. Given the mixed nature of the findings based on the outcome reporter, the current study discusses implications for discrepancy research and future directions to better understand discrepant perceptions as useful information on their own. The parent clinical trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier: NCT03125291, Registration date: 4/13/2017).

Harsh Parenting and Trajectories of Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Autistic Children

Autistic children show higher rates of co-occurring emotional and behavioural difficulties compared to other children in the general population. However, the environmental factors which contribute to the development of emotional (internalising) and behavioural (externalising) difficulties in autistic individuals are poorly understood. This study sought to investigate the association between harsh parenting (smacking, shouting, telling off) and the trajectories of emotional and behavioural difficulties in autistic children from ages 3 to 7. A sample comprising of 349 autistic children participated from the UK's Millennium Cohort Study. Associations between harsh parenting and child emotional and behavioural difficulties were modelled using multilevel growth curve models. In autistic children, harsh parenting was associated with total emotional and behavioural difficulties and behavioural (but not emotional) problems concurrently. Moreover, harsh parenting was not associated with changes in emotional and behavioural difficulties over time. Harsh parenting may have an important role in externalising problems in young autistic children indicating the need for public health strategies which educate parents on its effects.

Harsh parenting and suicide ideation among Chinese adolescents: the roles of self-esteem and school social support

BACKGROUND

While negative parenting style has considered as a risk factor for suicide ideation, little attention has been given to the mechanisms between harsh parenting and suicide ideation in the context of Chinese culture. This study explored the the potential mediating roles of self-esteem and the potential moderating roles of school social support in the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation among Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study among 4189 Chinese adolescents who completed measures of harsh parenting, school social support, self-esteem, and suicide ideation. The moderated mediation model was used to test the roles of self-esteem and school social support on the association between harsh parenting and adolescent suicide ideation.

RESULTS

(1) There were significant positive correlations between harsh parenting and adolescents suicide ideation. (2) Self-esteem mediates the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation in adolescents. (3) School social support moderates the indirect effect of harsh parenting on suicidal ideation.

CONCLUSIONS

Beyond the direct impact of harsh parenting, harsh parenting also indirectly contributes to adolescent suicide ideation via the mediator of adolescents' self-esteem. School social support moderates the relationship between harsh parenting and self-esteem as well as the relationship between self-esteem and suicide ideation. The findings suggest potential pathways for suicide prevention and intervention strategies and highlighted that buffering effect of school social support is limited as risk increasing.

Maltreatment, harsh parenting, and parent-adolescent relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted multiple aspects of family life, including normative tendencies for adolescents to establish independence from the family. This disruption has had profound, but variable impacts on parent-adolescent relationships, strengthening them in some circumstances and increasing the risk for harsh parenting and maltreatment in others. Factors that moderated this influence include a family's financial situation and pandemic-related job loss, pre-existing characteristics of the parent-child relationship, and parent and adolescent mental health. Further research is needed to examine the mechanisms through which the pandemic continues to influence parent-adolescent relationships, with attention to policy-related impacts.

Maternal history of maltreatment and offspring's emotional and behavioral problems in adolescence: Do family factors contribute to the intergenerational risk transmission?

BACKGROUND

A history of childhood maltreatment often has a negative and long-lasting impact across different domains in life. A childhood maltreatment experience in parents may even affect the next generation. So far, the effects of family factors have been considered in the intergenerational transmission of adversity across the childhood years, but whether the effects remain until adolescence is less clear.

OBJECTIVE

Using data from a large population-based study in the Netherlands, including both mother and child reports, we examined whether maternal childhood maltreatment history is associated with increased mental health problems in offspring and the role of family functioning and harsh parenting as a potential pathway.

PARTICIPANTS

4912 adolescents (aged 13 years) and their mothers were recruited in the Generation R study.

METHODS

Mothers reported childhood maltreatment experiences using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), and adolescents reported on their mental health using the Youth Self Report (YSR). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the association of maternal childhood maltreatment on mental health problems in offspring and family functioning and harsh parenting as mechanisms to explain this association.

RESULTS

Adolescents of mothers with a history of maltreatment had greater internalizing (β = 0.07, p < .01) and externalizing problems (β = 0.08, p < .01). Moreover, we found an indirect effect via family functioning over time and harsh parenting at ages 3 and 8 years which mediated this association.

CONCLUSION

We concluded an intergenerational effect of maternal childhood maltreatment on adolescents internalizing and externalizing problems. The findings might enable earlier intervention within the family context to mitigate the consequences of maternal childhood maltreatment.

Harsh parenting and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury: A moderated mediation model of alienation and cognitive reappraisal

OBJECTIVE

Harsh parenting has been shown to be associated with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in adolescents. Based on the integrated theoretical model of the development of NSSI and the cognitive-emotional model of NSSI, we proposed a moderated mediation model to investigate "how" and "when" harsh parenting is associated with adolescent NSSI. Specifically, we tested whether feelings of alienation mediated the association between harsh parenting and NSSI, and whether this indirect effect was weakened by cognitive reappraisal as an adaptive emotion regulation strategy.

METHODS

A total of 1638 Chinese adolescents (54.7 % girls; ages 12-19 years) completed self-report questionnaires in their classrooms. The questionnaires assessed harsh parenting, feelings of alienation, cognitive reappraisal skills, and incidents of NSSI.

RESULTS

Path analyses showed that harsh parenting positively predicted NSSI, and alienation mediated this association. Both the direct effect of harsh parenting on NSSI and the indirect effect through alienation were moderated by cognitive reappraisal. Specifically, cognitive reappraisal skills weakened the direct and indirect associations between harsh parenting and NSSI.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents may benefit from interventions that decrease feelings of alienation and increase cognitive reappraisal strategies to reduce the risk of NSSI in the context of harsh parenting.

Corporal Punishment Is Uniquely Associated With a Greater Neural Response to Errors and Blunted Neural Response to Rewards in Adolescence

BACKGROUND

Although corporal punishment is a common form of punishment with known negative impacts on health and behavior, how such punishment affects neurocognitive systems is relatively unknown.

METHODS

To address this issue, we examined how corporal punishment affected neural measures of error and reward processing in 149 adolescent boys and girls of ages 11 to 14 years (mean age [SD] = 11.02 [1.16]). Corporal punishment experienced over the lifetime was assessed using the Stress and Adversity Inventory. In addition, participants completed a flankers task and a reward task to measure the error-related negativity and reward positivity, respectively, as well as measures of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, participants who experienced lifetime corporal punishment reported more anxiety and depressive symptoms. Experiencing corporal punishment was also related to a larger error-related negativity and blunted reward positivity. Importantly, corporal punishment was independently related to a larger error-related negativity and a more blunted reward positivity beyond the impact of harsh parenting and lifetime stressors.

CONCLUSIONS

Corporal punishment appears to potentiate neural response to errors and decrease neural response to rewards, which could increase risk for anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Negative association between harsh parenting and life satisfaction: negative coping style as mediator and peer support as moderator

BACKGROUND

Previous research has demonstrated that harsh parenting negatively affects children's psychological development. This study examined the association between harsh parenting during childhood and life satisfaction of Chinese college students. We further looked at whether this association is explained in part by negative coping styles, and whether peer support lessens the potential effect of harsh parenting on negative coping styles and life satisfaction.

METHOD

The sample included 609 Chinese students (aged 17-21 years, M = 18.39, SD = 0.82). The participants responded to questionnaires measuring past experiences with harsh parenting, life satisfaction, negative coping styles, and peer support.

RESULTS

Regression analysis showed that harsh parenting negatively contributed to students' life satisfaction via the mediator of negative coping styles, and peer support moderated this negative relationship. Specifically, the negative impact of harsh parenting on life satisfaction was only significant when there was low peer support. The effect of harsh parenting on negative coping styles was higher in individuals with high peer support than in those with low peer support.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the roles of intrinsic (negative coping style) and extrinsic (peer support) factors in understanding the negative effects of harsh parenting on adolescents' life satisfaction. These results provide insight into how to enhance adolescents' life satisfaction by reducing harsh parenting and negative coping styles and by promoting peer support.

Pathways from Maternal Harsh Discipline Through Rumination to Anxiety and Depression Symptoms: Gender and Normativeness of Harsh Discipline as Moderators

This study examined gender-specific longitudinal pathways from harsh parenting through rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms among early adolescents from three countries and six subgroups. Participants were 567 mothers, 428 fathers, and 566 children (T1: Mage = 10.89; 50% girls) from Medellín, Colombia (n = 100); Naples, Italy (n = 95); Rome, Italy (n = 99); Durham, North Carolina, United States (Black n = 92, Latinx n = 80, and White n = 100). Parent reported maternal and paternal harsh parenting were measured at T1. Adolescent reported rumination was measured at T2 (Mage = 12.58) and anxiety and depression symptoms were measured at T1 and T3 (Mage = 13.71). Rumination mediated the pathway from maternal harsh discipline to girls' anxiety and depression symptoms, controlling for baseline anxiety and depression symptoms. The more harsh discipline mothers used, the more their daughters ruminated, which in turn was associated with increased anxiety and depression symptoms. Exploratory moderated mediation analyses indicated that the strength of the mediational pathway from maternal harsh discipline through girls' rumination to anxiety and depression symptoms decreased as the normativeness of harsh parenting increased. Mediational pathways for boys and for paternal harsh discipline were not significant. Our findings expand knowledge on specific contexts in which rumination is a mechanism for understanding pathways to anxiety and depression symptoms.

Parents under stress: Evaluating emergency childcare policies during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Germany

What are the effects of school and daycare facility closures during the COVID-19 pandemic on parental well-being and parenting behavior? Can emergency childcare policies during a pandemic mitigate increases in parental stress and negative parenting behavior? To answer these questions, this study leverages cross-state variation in emergency childcare eligibility rules during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Germany and draws on unique data from the 2019 and 2020 waves of the German AID:A family panel. Employing a triple-differences approach we identify short- to medium-term intention-to-treat effects and find that while emergency care policies did not considerably affect parents' life satisfaction, partnership satisfaction or mental health, they have been effective in diminishing harsh parenting behavior. We find partly gendered effects, specifically on paternal parenting behavior. Our results suggest that decreasing parental well-being likely constitutes a general effect of the pandemic, whereas the observed increase in negative and potentially harmful parenting behavior is largely directly caused by school and daycare facility closures.

Cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation mediate the relation of paternal and maternal harsh parenting to adolescent social anxiety

BACKGROUND

Extant models of the association between harsh parenting and social anxiety among adolescents are mostly partial mediation models, leaving much of the relationship unaccounted for.

OBJECTIVE

The current study intends to test a two-mediator model in which adolescents' cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation were assumed to mediate the potential impact of harsh parenting on their social anxiety.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS

A sample of 726 adolescent students with their parents was recruited from two middle schools located in a provincial city of Northern China.

METHODS

Both fathers and mothers were required to report on their spouse's harsh parenting practices. The "Behind your back" task was used to assess cognitive reactivity of adolescents who also reported on their emotional dysregulation and social anxiety. Moderated mediation model and simple slope analyses were used to examine the meditational relations and the moderating role of child sex.

RESULTS

For the current model, cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation could completely mediate the potential influence of harsh fathering and harsh mothering on adolescents' social anxiety. Moreover, harsh fathering has a greater effect on adolescents' social anxiety than harsh mothering, especially for girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive reactivity in conjunction with emotional dysfunction can better account for the relationship from harsh fathering and harsh mothering to adolescents' social anxiety.

Intergenerational Transmission of Peer Aggression

It is plausible that peer aggression—like general forms of aggression—is transmitted from one generation to the next. As such, parental behavior in childhood and adolescence may be associated with offspring aggressive behavior against peers. This study used 1970 British Cohort Study data to test intergenerational transmission of peer aggression. The baseline sample consisted of 13,135 participants. At the first assessment that was used in this study, participants were on average 4.95 years old (SD = 0.79; 48.20% female). At the last assessment, participants were on average 33.88 years old (SD = 0.36; 52.1% female). Models were computed for early and middle childhood, and adolescence. Significant associations between parents’ and offspring peer aggression were found in most models – especially when correlating aggression in similar developmental periods for parents and children. Other transmission mechanisms such as genetic transmission may be relevant and should be taken into account in future studies.

Mediating Effects of Parental Stress on Harsh Parenting and Parent-Child Relationship during Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic in Singapore

Because of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, "Circuit-breaker" safety distancing was implemented in Singapore from April to May 2020. Schools and workplaces were closed and parents had to balance telecommuting with parenting responsibilities. Coupled with the high degree of economic uncertainty and reduced social support, these circumstances are hypothesized to increase parenting stress. Based on the Parental Stress Model, this study aims to understand how parents' perceived impact of COVID-19 increased harsh parenting and reduced parent-child relationship closeness through the mediating effects of parenting stress. We collected data from 258 parents living in Singapore using online surveys disseminated through Facebook and community organizations. Our predictor was the perceived impact of COVID-19. Parental stress (mediator) was measured with the Parental Stress Scale. Two outcomes were used: parent-child relationship closeness and harsh parenting (spanking, yelling). Using mediation analysis in the SEM framework, we tested the indirect effects using bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. Our results indicated that parenting stress was a significant mediator in the relationship between the perceived impact of COVID-19 and (a) parent-child closeness (indirect effect = -.30, Bootstrap 99% CI[-.59, -.11]) and (b) harsh parenting (indirect effect = .58, Bootstrap 99% CI[.25, .94]). The impact of COVID-19 and stay-home orders can increase parenting stress. This, in turn, has a negative impact on parenting by affecting parents' relationship with their children and increasing the use of harsh parenting. Given that these are risk factors for potential child abuse, supporting parents and mitigating the impact of COVID-19 are important.

Mediating Effects of Parental Stress on Harsh Parenting and Parent-Child Relationship during Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic in Singapore

Because of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, "Circuit-breaker" safety distancing was implemented in Singapore from April to May 2020. Schools and workplaces were closed and parents had to balance telecommuting with parenting responsibilities. Coupled with the high degree of economic uncertainty and reduced social support, these circumstances are hypothesized to increase parenting stress. Based on the Parental Stress Model, this study aims to understand how parents' perceived impact of COVID-19 increased harsh parenting and reduced parent-child relationship closeness through the mediating effects of parenting stress. We collected data from 258 parents living in Singapore using online surveys disseminated through Facebook and community organizations. Our predictor was the perceived impact of COVID-19. Parental stress (mediator) was measured with the Parental Stress Scale. Two outcomes were used: parent-child relationship closeness and harsh parenting (spanking, yelling). Using mediation analysis in the SEM framework, we tested the indirect effects using bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. Our results indicated that parenting stress was a significant mediator in the relationship between the perceived impact of COVID-19 and (a) parent-child closeness (indirect effect = -.30, Bootstrap 99% CI[-.59, -.11]) and (b) harsh parenting (indirect effect = .58, Bootstrap 99% CI[.25, .94]). The impact of COVID-19 and stay-home orders can increase parenting stress. This, in turn, has a negative impact on parenting by affecting parents' relationship with their children and increasing the use of harsh parenting. Given that these are risk factors for potential child abuse, supporting parents and mitigating the impact of COVID-19 are important.

Mediating Effects of Parental Stress on Harsh Parenting and Parent-Child Relationship during Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic in Singapore

Because of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, "Circuit-breaker" safety distancing was implemented in Singapore from April to May 2020. Schools and workplaces were closed and parents had to balance telecommuting with parenting responsibilities. Coupled with the high degree of economic uncertainty and reduced social support, these circumstances are hypothesized to increase parenting stress. Based on the Parental Stress Model, this study aims to understand how parents' perceived impact of COVID-19 increased harsh parenting and reduced parent-child relationship closeness through the mediating effects of parenting stress. We collected data from 258 parents living in Singapore using online surveys disseminated through Facebook and community organizations. Our predictor was the perceived impact of COVID-19. Parental stress (mediator) was measured with the Parental Stress Scale. Two outcomes were used: parent-child relationship closeness and harsh parenting (spanking, yelling). Using mediation analysis in the SEM framework, we tested the indirect effects using bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. Our results indicated that parenting stress was a significant mediator in the relationship between the perceived impact of COVID-19 and (a) parent-child closeness (indirect effect = -.30, Bootstrap 99% CI[-.59, -.11]) and (b) harsh parenting (indirect effect = .58, Bootstrap 99% CI[.25, .94]). The impact of COVID-19 and stay-home orders can increase parenting stress. This, in turn, has a negative impact on parenting by affecting parents' relationship with their children and increasing the use of harsh parenting. Given that these are risk factors for potential child abuse, supporting parents and mitigating the impact of COVID-19 are important.

Harsh parenting and child conduct and emotional problems: parent- and child-effects in the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort

In high-income countries, links between harsh and abusive parenting and child conduct and emotional problems are well-documented. However, less is known about these relationships in low- and middle-income countries, where harsh parenting may be more widely accepted and higher rates of conduct or emotional problems may exist which could influence the strength of these associations. We sought to investigate these relationships in a large population-based, prospective longitudinal study from Brazil, which also allowed us to test for sex differences. Using data from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study (N = 4231) at ages 6 and 11 years, we applied cross-lagged path analysis to examine the relationships between harsh parenting (Conflict Tactics Scale Parent-Child version), and child conduct and emotional problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). We found reciprocal relationships between harsh parenting and child conduct problems, with harsh parenting at age 6 predicting child conduct problems at age 11, and vice versa, even after adjusting for initial levels of conduct problems and harsh parenting, respectively. For child emotional problems, only unidirectional effects were found, with harsh parenting at age 6 predicting child emotional problems at age 11, after adjusting for initial levels of emotional problems, but not vice versa. No significant sex differences were observed in these relationships. These observations based on a middle-income country birth cohort highlight the potential universality of detrimental effects of harsh parenting on child conduct and emotional problems and affirm the importance of addressing parent- and child-effects in preventive and treatment interventions, especially those targeting conduct problems.

Harsh parenting and non-suicidal self-injury in adolescence: the mediating effect of depressive symptoms and the moderating effect of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have suggested that negative parenting environments, especially harsh parenting, are a specific risk factor for non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). However, the potential mechanism between harsh parenting and NSSI has not been explored. Based on the experiential avoidance model and empirical research, we aimed to examine whether depressive symptoms are a mediator between harsh parenting and NSSI. Moreover, the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met polymorphism related to depressive symptoms may also exert a moderating effect on NSSI; thus, the interaction between harsh parenting and COMT was also considered in our study.

METHODS

A total of 373 junior high school students were recruited for the study by using a longitudinal design. The adolescents answered self-report questionnaires and provided saliva samples for DNA genotyping.

RESULTS

The results revealed that harsh parenting was positively associated with NSSI after 24 months, and this association was mediated by depressive symptoms. Moreover, the moderating role of COMT in the direct and indirect effects of harsh parenting on NSSI was observed only among adolescents with two Val alleles and the relationship was not significant for Met carriers.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic variations of COMT Val158Met may be a critical candidate in understanding the development of depression and NSSI. We conclude that Val homozygotes of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism play a role in susceptibility to both depressive symptoms and NSSI.

Maternal Parenting Behaviors Amplify Environmental Influences on Developmental Trajectories of Alcohol Use During Adolescence

Compared to peer alcohol use, less is known on how parenting practices may modify genetic and environmental contributions to alcohol use longitudinally across adolescence. This study examined whether two maternal parenting behaviors, supervision and harsh parenting, may suppress or amplify genetic and environmental influences on three distinct developmental trajectories of adolescent alcohol use: normative increasing, early-onset, and low trajectories. Participants were drawn from a longitudinal study of a population-based twin sample (N = 842, 84% European descent, 52.7% female). Adolescents self-reported their past year alcohol use at ages 13, 14, 15, and 17 years, and their mothers reported their supervision and harsh parenting when twins were 13, 15, and 17 years old. Maternal supervision amplified non-shared environmental influence on the normative increasing and early-onset trajectories, whereas maternal harsh parenting amplified shared environmental influence on the early-onset trajectory and non-shared environmental influence on the low trajectory, respectively. The findings suggest maternal parenting practices as a potent developmental context that modulates the environmental influences of other proximal processes on adolescent alcohol use, and suggest that family-based parenting-focused intervention could be especially beneficial for adolescents following the early-onset trajectory.

All in the family: parental substance misuse, harsh parenting, and youth substance misuse among juvenile justice-involved youth

PURPOSE

Research consistently connects parental and youth substance misuse, yet less is known about the mechanisms driving this association among justice-involved youth. We examine whether harsh parenting is an explanatory mechanism for the association between parental substance use and parental mental health and youth substance use disorder in a sample of justice-involved youth.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the Northwestern Juvenile Project, a large-scale longitudinal survey of mental health and substance misuse in a representative sample of youth in juvenile detention. Harsh parenting, child maltreatment, youth alcohol and cannabis use disorder, and parental substance misuse and mental health were assessed among 1,825 detained youth (35.95% female) at baseline, three-year follow-up, and four-year follow-up.

RESULTS

At baseline, over 80% of youth used alcohol and/or cannabis; at the four-year follow-up, 16.35% and 19.69% of the youth were diagnosed with alcohol and cannabis use disorder, respectively. More than 20% of youth reported their parent misused substances and 6.11% reported a parent had a severe mental health need. Black youth experienced significantly fewer types of harsh parenting compared to White youth. Multivariate path analyses revealed harsh parenting mediated the association between parental substance misuse and mental health on youth alcohol and cannabis use disorder. Harsh parenting that does not rise to the level of child maltreatment mediated the association between parental substance misuse and mental health on youth alcohol use disorder; in contrast, child maltreatment did not mediate these associations. Multigroup analyses revealed the effect of harsh parenting on youth alcohol and cannabis use disorder did not vary across sex or race-ethnic subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Harsh parenting represents one mechanism for the intergenerational continuity of alcohol and cannabis misuse and should be regularly assessed for and addressed in juvenile justice settings.

Harsh Parenting Predicts Novel HPA Receptor Gene Methylation and NR3C1 Methylation Predicts Cortisol Daily Slope in Middle Childhood

Adverse experiences in childhood are associated with altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function and negative health outcomes throughout life. It is now commonly accepted that abuse and neglect can alter epigenetic regulation of HPA genes. Accumulated evidence suggests harsh parenting practices such as spanking are also strong predictors of negative health outcomes. We predicted harsh parenting at 2.5 years old would predict HPA gene DNA methylation similarly to abuse and neglect, and cortisol output at 8.5 years old. Saliva samples were collected three times a day across 3 days to estimate cortisol diurnal slopes. Methylation was quantified using the Illumina Infinium MethylationEPIC array BeadChip (850 K) with DNA collected from buccal cells. We used principal components analysis to compute a summary statistic for CpG sites across candidate genes. The first and second components were used as outcome variables in mixed linear regression analyses with harsh parenting as a predictor variable. We found harsh parenting significantly predicted methylation of several HPA axis genes, including novel gene associations with AVPRB1, CRHR1, CRHR2, and MC2R (FDR corrected p < 0.05). Further, we found NR3C1 methylation predicted a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Our results extend the current literature by demonstrating harsh parenting may influence DNA methylation similarly to more extreme early life experiences such as abuse and neglect. Further, we show NR3C1 methylation is associated with diurnal HPA function. Elucidating the molecular consequences of harsh parenting on health can inform best parenting practices and provide potential treatment targets for common complex disorders.

Adverse and Protective Childhood Experiences and Parenting Attitudes: the Role of Cumulative Protection in Understanding Resilience

Theory and research indicate that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are linked to negative parenting attitudes and behaviors. We posit that protective and compensatory experiences (PACEs) in childhood buffer the negative effects of ACEs on later parenting. To test this premise, the present study examined associations between ACEs, PACEs, and attitudes towards nurturing and harsh parenting in an ethnically diverse sample of parents with children of various ages (N = 109; 65% mothers, 35% fathers; M age = 38). Parents completed a widely used parenting attitudes questionnaire and the ACEs and PACEs surveys. PACEs were negatively correlated with ACEs and positively correlated with nurturing parenting attitudes and parent income and education levels. Linear regression models indicate that higher PACEs, ACEs, and family income and less harsh parenting attitudes predict nurturing parenting attitudes. In contrast, higher ACEs and less nurturing attitudes were correlated with harsh parenting attitudes. As expected, moderation analyses indicated that the association between ACEs and harsh parenting attitudes was conditional upon the level of PACEs. When PACE scores were low (M – 1 SD), but not when PACE scores were average or high (M + 1 SD), ACEs were associated with harsh parenting attitudes, suggesting a buffering effect of PACEs on negative parenting attitudes. These findings support the importance of including protective as well as adverse childhood experiences when assessing the role of childhood experiences on parenting attitudes and practices. Implications of these findings for researchers and practitioners are discussed, as well as new directions for PACEs research using a cumulative protection approach.

The Relations Among Stress, Executive Functions, and Harsh Parenting in Mothers

Stress is a common experience that can spillover into parenting, which in turn has important implications for child behavior. Parents' executive functioning (EF) may buffer the association between feelings of stress and parenting. However, using lower socioeconomic status (SES) and household chaos as indicators of stress, research has demonstrated inconsistent patterns with regard to this moderating role of EF. This study's first aim examined the moderating role of maternal EF on the associations between SES and household chaos, and harsh parenting. The second aim investigated the effects of experimentally induced stress on harsh parenting and whether maternal EF moderated these effects. A final sample of 101 mothers of 6 to 10-year-old children participated by completing measures of EF, household chaos, SES, and harsh parenting. Additionally, mothers were randomly assigned to either a stress group or a control group. Throughout the stress (or control) induction, mothers rated their harsh parenting in response to child misbehavior vignettes. Findings revealed that stronger EF reduced the association between household chaos and harsh parenting. There were no significant effects of SES or experimentally induced stress on harsh parenting, and EF was not a significant moderator for these stressors. These results highlight the buffering role of EF for more chronic stressors such as household chaos. SES and more acute stress, as manipulated by the TSST, at least in the current sample, may be less relevant.

Harsh parenting during early childhood and child development

We study the relationship between harsh parenting strategies, including psychological and physical aggressions that do not constitute abuse, on early childhood cognitive and socio-emotional development. We estimate a value-added model that controls for a rich set of child, mother, and family characteristics, from a nationally representative sample of Chilean children aged 52-83 months. We find harsh parenting is significantly associated with lower verbal skills (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) of a magnitude of 0.06 standard deviations, and with increased behavioral problems (Child Behavior Check List), by 0.11 standard deviations, including internalization, externalization, and sleep problems. We also find that the more systematic (persistent) harsh parenting is, the stronger the association; the association is similar for boys and girls; reaches its peak at about 5 years of age; and it is stronger for children with less educated mothers.

Like Father, like Child: Early Life Family Adversity and Children's Bullying Behaviors in Elementary School

Family adversity has been associated with children’s bullying behaviors. The evidence is, however, dominated by mothers’ perceptions of the family environment and a focus on mothers’ behaviors. This prospective population-based study examined whether children’s bullying behaviors were associated with mother- and father-reported family adversity, assessed before and after child birth. Peer-nominations were used to assess bullying behaviors of 1298 children in elementary school (mean age 7.5 years). The following paternal risk factors were prospectively associated with children’s bullying behaviors: (1) father-reported prenatal family distress, (2) fathers’ hostility at preschool age, and (3) fathers’ harsh disciplinary practices at preschool age, but effect sizes were relatively small. The effect of maternal risk factors was less consistent, only mother-reported family distress in childhood was associated with children’s bullying behaviors. The associations were independent of background family risk factors (i.e., life stress, contextual factors, and other background factors such as parental education and risk taking record) and early childhood externalizing problems. Moreover, our results indicated that father-reported family adversity predicted children’s bullying behaviors over and above the background family risk factors, early childhood externalizing problems and mother-reported family adversity. We also demonstrated that the association of fathers’ prenatal hostility and family distress with subsequent bullying behavior of their child at school was partly mediated by fathers’ harsh disciplinary practices at preschool age. Our findings highlight the importance of fathers’ behaviors in the development of children’s bullying behaviors.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Externalizing Behavior: the Importance of a Positive Romantic Partner

The current study evaluated the influence of a positive romantic partner on the intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior across generations. The study included 213 generation one (G1) mothers and their adolescent (generation two; G2) who participated from middle adolescence through adulthood, G2's romantic partner in adulthood, and the third-generation (G3) child between ages 3-5 years. Two steps were used to identify the role of G2's romantic partner's positive behavior on the transmission of externalizing behavior from G2 and G3. First, after controlling for G1 harsh parenting and G2 externalizing at Time 1, both G2 externalizing at Time 2 and G2 harsh parenting at Time 3 were associated with G3 externalizing at Time 3. Second, we found both main and interaction effects of G2 partner's positive behavior with G2 externalizing behavior at Time 2 and G2 harsh parenting at Time 3 on G3 externalizing behavior at Time 3. Results suggest a positive romantic partner may have an important role in disrupting the negative effects of both G2 externalizing behavior and harsh parenting on their G3 child's externalizing behavior.

Harsh parenting and child aggression: Child moral disengagement as the mediator and negative parental attribution as the moderator

As the negative outcomes of harsh parenting for child development have been gradually revealed, researchers become increasingly interested in the mechanisms through which harsh parenting affects child development. This study aimed to explore the mediating role of child moral disengagement and the moderating role of negative parental attribution in the relation of harsh parenting to child aggression. A sample of 397 Chinese adolescents aged from 12 to 16 years (227 boys and 170 girls, Mage = 13.98) with their parents were recruited as participants from two public schools situated in rural areas of Shandong province in China. Data were gathered from parents reporting on their harsh parenting and negative parental attribution, adolescents reporting on their moral disengagement, and peers nominating out aggressive children. Results indicated that harsh parenting was both directly and indirectly associated with adolescent aggression via adolescent moral disengagement. Negative parental attribution was found to moderate the indirect relation of harsh parenting to adolescent aggression via moral disengagement. Specifically, harsh parenting was only significantly associated with moral disengagement for adolescents with high levels of moral disengagement was more likely to induce aggression among adolescents with high levels of negative parental attribution (bsimple = of harsh parenting to adolescent aggression, adolescent moral disengagement could mediate the association between harsh parenting and aggressive behaviors for adolescents with high levels of negative parental attribution.

Intergenerational transmission of delay discounting: The mediating role of household chaos

INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is a period when impulsive decision making may be especially vulnerable to environmental influences. Impulsive decision making is often assessed using a delay discounting paradigm, which measures the preference for smaller rewards sooner over larger rewards with a delay. Research is needed to clarify the relationship between parents' and adolescents' delay discounting and to identify related environmental processes that might facilitate the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting. The current prospective longitudinal study examined the competing mediating processes of household chaos and harsh parenting in the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting between parents and adolescents.

METHODS

Participants included 167 adolescents (mean age = 14.07 years at Time 1; 53% male) and their parents (mean age = 41.98 years at Time 1; 87% female) recruited from the southeast United States. Parents' delay discounting was collected at Time 1, and adolescents' delay discounting was collected both at Time 1 and at Time 3 via a computerized delay discounting task. Parents and adolescents reported household chaos and harsh parenting at Time 2.

RESULTS

A parallel mediation model indicated that parents' delay discounting at Time 1 indirectly predicted adolescents' delay discounting Time 3 residualized change scores (regressing Time 3 delay discounting onto baseline delay discounting) through household chaos but not through harsh parenting at Time 2.

CONCLUSIONS

These results underline the importance of household chaos in facilitating the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting between parents and adolescents. Furthermore, our findings point to household chaos as a potential environmental target for interrupting intergenerational impulsivity.

Youth Adversities Amplify the Association between Adult Stressors and Chronic Inflammation in a Domain Specific Manner: Nuancing the Early Life Sensitivity Model

There is strong evidence that chronic, systemic inflammation hastens onset of the diseases of old age that ultimately lead to death. Importantly, several studies suggest that childhood adversity predicts chronic inflammation. Unfortunately, this research has been plagued by retrospective reports of childhood adversity, an absence of controls for adult stressors, and a failure to investigate various competing models of the link between childhood adversity and chronic inflammation. The present study was designed to address these limitations. Using 18 years of data collected from 413 African Americans (58% female) included in the Family and Community Health Study, hierarchical regression analyses provided support for a nuanced early life sensitivity explanation for the link between early adversity and adult chronic inflammation. Controlling for health risk behaviors and adult SES, late childhood (ages 10-12) adversity amplified the association between adult adversity (age 29) and chronic inflammation. This interaction operated in a domain-specific fashion. Harsh parenting amplified the relation between intimate partner hostility and inflammation, whereas early discrimination amplified the relation between adult discrimination and inflammation. These findings suggest that individuals may be primed to respond physiologically to adverse adult circumstances that resemble those experienced earlier in life.

Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment

Early childhood exposure to family violence predicts increased risk for psychopathology. However, violence between partners and towards children often co-occur. This complicates efforts to determine how experiences of family violence contribute to early mental health problems. Utilizing mother-report data on harsh parenting and intimate partner violence (IPV) from two large community-based, socioeconomically and ethnically diverse samples of 3-5-year-old children, we illustrate the value of a bifactor method for characterizing a family climate in which verbal and physical violence are more chronic and pervasive among family members. In our Calibration sample (N = 1,179), we demonstrate the fit of a bifactor model with a shared violence factor reflecting violence among partners and towards children and orthogonal factors for physically harsh parenting and IPV. Examination of item distributions along quartiles on the identified factors reveals that violent behaviors are most frequent/chronic in families with high scores on the shared violence factor. Next, we apply this model in Validation (N = 1,316) and lab-visit samples (N = 369). Children's symptoms and impairment showed relatively strong and consistent associations with the shared factor. Some unique associations with IPV and harsh parenting were also observed. Overall, patterns suggest particularly negative impact when verbal and physical violence are more chronic and pervasive among family members. Finally, evidence supporting the bifactor model's validity relative to multi-method data from coded interviews about child abuse and IPV and observed parenting is presented. Findings illustrate the value of a bifactor approach for the meaningful characterization of shared and specific features of family violence.

The Influence of Economic Pressure on Emerging Adult Binge Drinking: Testing the Family Stress Model over Time

The Family Stress Model proposes that disrupted family processes may help explain the association between economic adversity and poor child developmental outcomes. In this study, the Family Stress Model was tested across adolescence to emerging adulthood. Participants included 451 rural White youth who participated with their parents from age 13-23 (52% female). The data were analyzed at five developmental time periods with separate pathways for mothers and fathers. The findings reveal for both parents that economic pressure at time 1 (age 13) led to parental emotional distress which was related to harsh couple interaction at time 2 (ages 14 and 15). This marital conflict was related to harsh parenting toward the adolescent (time 2), which was then directly associated with higher levels of offspring drinking when youth were in middle adolescence (age 16) at time 3. Alcohol use in middle adolescence was associated with binge drinking in late adolescence (age 18, time 4) into emerging adulthood (age 23, time 5). Drinking behaviors did not differ for boys and girls. The current results show that economic adversity has an effect on family processes which influence offspring binge drinking patterns in later adolescence that continue into emerging adulthood.

Negative parental attribution and emotional dysregulation in Chinese early adolescents: Harsh fathering and harsh mothering as potential mediators

The current study examined the potential mediating roles of harsh fathering and harsh mothering in the association between negative parental attribution and emotional dysregulation in Chinese adolescents and explored the moderating role of child gender on this indirect association. 864 students (367 girls, mean age = 13.55 years) with their parents were recruited as participants from two middle schools in Shandong Province, People's Republic of China. The results demonstrated that both harsh fathering and harsh mothering could partially mediate the association between negative maternal attribution and child emotional dysregulation, whereas only harsh fathering could partially mediate the association between negative paternal attribution and child emotional dysregulation. Moreover, we found the moderating role of child gender only for the association between harsh fathering and child emotional dysregulation, in that harsh fathering could be associated with higher levels of emotional dysregulation in girls. These results shed light on efforts to prevent harsh parenting and child emotional dysregulation.

The Association of Harsh Parenting, Parent-Child Communication, and Parental Alcohol Use With Male Alcohol Use Into Emerging Adulthood

PURPOSE

This study investigates the association between mother and father harsh parenting, and parent-child communication, and parental alcohol use on males' alcohol use from early adolescence into emerging adulthood.

METHODS

Data come from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, a prospective 28-year longitudinal study of rural Midwestern youth and their families. Mother and father harsh parenting, parent-child communication, and alcohol use were assessed at time 1 when males were in early adolescence (13 years old, n = 215). Target male alcohol use was assessed at time 2 during late adolescence (18 and 19 years old, n = 206, 96% follow-up rate), and at time 3 in emerging adulthood (23 and 25 years old, n = 197, 92% follow-up rate).

RESULTS

Results obtained from structural equation modeling using Mplus, version 7, statistical software indicated that father harsh parenting in early adolescence was directly associated with alcohol use in emerging adulthood. Mother communication was negatively associated while father alcohol use was positively associated with adolescent alcohol use in late adolescence and emerging adulthood. Alcohol use in late adolescence was significantly related to alcohol use in emerging adulthood.

CONCLUSION

This study offers unique insights into how mother- and father-son dyads differ in communication and parenting styles, as well as how these associations influence adolescent male alcohol use continuing into emerging adulthood. Multiple informants utilized in the current study provide a more complex understanding of how each parent uniquely contributes to the role of their adolescent's alcohol use in late adolescence into emerging adulthood.

Harsh parenting and academic achievement in Chinese adolescents: Potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement

This study examined (a) the potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement in the association between harsh parenting and adolescent academic achievement, and (b) the potential moderating role of gender. Sixth through eighth graders in rural China (n=815, mean age=12.55years) reported on harsh parenting, effortful control, and classroom engagement. Parents also reported on each other's harsh parenting. Academic achievement was assessed by students' test scores and teacher-rated academic performance. Results of structural equation modeling revealed gender differences in patterns of association among the model variables. Harsh parenting was negatively and directly associated with academic achievement for both boys and girls. It was also negatively and indirectly associated with academic achievement via effortful control and classroom engagement sequentially, forming a common indirect "path" for boys and girls. The indirect negative effect of harsh parenting on boys' academic achievement was mainly realized through the mediator of effortful control, whereas this same indirect effect for girls was mainly realized through the mediator of classroom engagement. Jointly, effortful control and classroom engagement precipitates more indirect effects for boys than for girls in the association between harsh parenting and academic achievement. The discussion analyzes the potential "paths" from harsh parenting to adolescent academic achievement, as well as gender differences in these "paths." The current study has implications for teachers and parents eager to improve students' classroom engagement and academic achievement.

Experiencing Instigations and Trait Aggression Contribute to Harsh Parenting Behaviors

Three studies (total N = 1777 parents) examined whether harsh parenting behaviors would increase when parents experienced an instigation and whether this increase would be especially pronounced for parents who were high in trait aggression. These predictions were tested both when parents' experience of an instigation was manipulated (Studies 1 and 2) and when parents' perceptions of their child's instigating behavior was reported (Study 3). Further, these predictions were tested across a variety of measures of parents' harsh behaviors: (1) asking parents to report their likelihood of behaving harshly (Study 1), (2) using proxy tasks for parents' inclinations to behave harshly (Study 2), and (3) having parents report their past child-directed behaviors, some of which were harsh (Study 3). Both child instigations and parents' trait aggression were consistently associated with parents' child-directed harsh behaviors. However, parents' trait aggression only moderated the extent to which the instigation was associated with their harsh parenting for self-reported physical harsh behaviors (Study 1). The results of the current studies demonstrate that both situational factors, such as experiencing an instigation, and individual difference variables, such as trait aggression, affect parents' likelihood to exhibit harsh behaviors, but found little evidence these factors interact.

Violence Exposure as a Mediator Between Parenting and Adolescent Mental Health

For youth exposed to community violence, parenting has been found to play a significant role in protecting adolescents from associated mental health symptoms. Yet little is known about the potential of parenting to prevent such exposure in the first place and thereby reduce the likelihood of adolescents' mental health symptoms. This study examined two parental practices that have often been examined as moderators, but not yet as predictors, of youth exposure to community violence associations with adolescent mental health, namely parental control and parental harshness. Analyses of self-reported data from 908 adolescents (M _age = 16.5, SD = 1.71; 52 % girls; 13 % non-Hispanic White) revealed that harsh parenting was indirectly associated with youth mental health symptoms through higher levels of exposure to community violence, whereas links between controlling parenting and mental health symptoms were either non-significant or mediated through lower levels of adolescent violence exposure. These findings highlight the potential positive role parental control may play by preventing adolescents from exposure to potentially dangerous situations. Conversely, our results suggest that harsh parenting appears to pose a risk for adolescents by driving youth away from the home environment and potentially into places where violence may be more prevalent.

Aetiological pathways to Borderline Personality Disorder symptoms in early adolescence: childhood dysregulated behaviour, maladaptive parenting and bully victimisation

BACKGROUND

Developmental theories for the aetiology of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) suggest that both individual features (e.g., childhood dysregulated behaviour) and negative environmental experiences (e.g., maladaptive parenting, peer victimisation) may lead to the development of BPD symptoms during adolescence. Few prospective studies have examined potential aetiological pathways involving these two factors.

METHOD

We addressed this gap in the literature using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). We assessed mother-reported childhood dysregulated behaviour at 4, 7 and 8 years using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ); maladaptive parenting (maternal hitting, punishment, and hostility) at 8 to 9 years; and bully victimisation (child and mother report) at 8, 9 and 10 years. BPD symptoms were assessed at 11 years using the UK Childhood Interview for DSM-IV BPD. Control variables included adolescent depression (assessed with the Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire-SMFQ) and psychotic symptoms (assessed with the Psychosis-Like Symptoms Interview-PLIKS) at 11 to 14 years, and mother's exposure to family adversity during pregnancy (assessed with the Family Adversity Scale-FAI).

RESULTS

In unadjusted logistic regression analyses, childhood dysregulated behaviour and all environmental risk factors (i.e., family adversity, maladaptive parenting, and bully victimisation) were significantly associated with BPD symptoms at 11 years. Within structural equation modelling controlling for all associations simultaneously, family adversity and male sex significantly predicted dysregulated behaviour across childhood, while bully victimisation significantly predicted BPD, depression, and psychotic symptoms. Children displaying dysregulated behaviour across childhood were significantly more likely to experience maladaptive parenting (β = 0.075, p < 0.001) and bully victimisation (β = 0.327, p < 0.001). Further, there was a significant indirect association between childhood dysregulated behaviour and BPD symptoms via an increased risk of bullying (β = 0.097, p < 0.001). While significant indirect associations between dysregulated behaviour, bully victimisation and depression (β = 0.063, p < 0.001) and psychotic (β = 0.074, p < 0.001) outcomes were also observed, the indirect association was significantly stronger for the BPD outcome (BPD - depression = 0.034, p < 0.01; BPD - psychotic symptoms = 0.023, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood dysregulated behaviour is associated with BPD in early adolescence via an increased risk of bully victimisation. This suggests that childhood dysregulation may influence the risk of bully victimisation, which in turn influences the development of BPD. Effective interventions should target dysregulated behaviour early on to reduce exposure to environmental risks and the subsequent development of BPD.

Harsh parenting and peer acceptance in Chinese early adolescents: Three child aggression subtypes as mediators and child gender as moderator

This study examined the mediating roles of three types of child aggression in the relation between harsh parenting and Chinese early adolescents' peer acceptance as well as the moderating role of child gender on this indirect relation. 833 children (mean age=13.58, 352 girls) with their parents were recruited as participants from two junior high schools in Shandong Province, People's Republic of China. The results showed that paternal harsh parenting was only associated with boys' aggressive behaviors and maternal harsh parenting was only associated with boys' and girls' verbal aggression. Adolescents' verbal and relational aggressions were negatively associated with their peer acceptance. Verbal aggression was more strongly and negatively associated with girls' peer acceptance. The results imply that in the Chinese cultural context, paternal harsh parenting may compromise boys' peer acceptance through boys' verbal and relational aggression as mediators, whereas maternal harsh parenting may impair children's peer acceptance through children's verbal aggression as a mediator, especially for girls. These results provide a theoretical basis for ameliorating the negative effect of harsh parenting on early adolescents' peer acceptance by reducing their aggressive behaviors, with different strategies between boys and girls.

Harsh Parenting and Food Insecurity in Adolescence: The Association With Emerging Adult Obesity

PURPOSE

As the first study of its kind, the overall purpose of this article was to examine the relationships and interactions between harsh parenting (HP) and food insecurity (FI) in adolescence on the development of overweight/obesity (OW/OB) in emerging adulthood.

METHODS

Data came from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, a longitudinal study of 451 adolescent youth and their families that began in 1989 in the rural Midwest. Adolescents were aged 13 years at the initial assessment, and weight status in emerging adulthood was measured 10 years later at age 23.

RESULTS

Experiencing HP in adolescence predicted greater odds of OW/OB at 23 years old. Higher body mass indexes of the adolescent and his or her father in adolescence also increased the odds of being OW/OB at 23 years. Having parents with higher levels of education lowered the odds of being OW/OB in emerging adulthood. Finally, females who experienced high levels of FI and HP in adolescence had higher odds of OW/OB at 23 years in comparison to males.

CONCLUSIONS

HP, in combination with FI in adolescence, predicted OW/OB for females in emerging adulthood but not for males. This study contributes to an understanding of the interplay between multiple influences in adolescence: namely, parenting and economic influences. Assessing antecedents to OW/OB in emerging adulthood via multiple pathways provides a more complex understanding of how and why adolescents turn into OW/OB adults.

Prenatal substance exposure and child self-regulation: Pathways to risk and protection

A conceptual model of the association between prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) and child self-regulation via maternal harshness and language development was examined. Specifically, the model tested whether PCE was associated with self-regulation either directly or indirectly via high maternal harshness and poor language development. The role of child sex, autonomic reactivity, and cumulative environmental risk as potential moderators was also explored. The sample was 216 mother-child dyads recruited at birth and assessed at 2, 7, 13, 24, 36, and 48 months of child ages. Participating mothers were primarily African American (72%). Results indicated a significant indirect association between PCE and child effortful control at 36 months via higher maternal harshness. Autonomic reactivity moderated the association between maternal harshness and self-regulation such that among children with poor autonomic reactivity, high maternal harshness was associated with lower conscience at 3 years. Child sex and environmental risk did not moderate the association between PCE and self-regulation. Thus, the quality of caregiving experience played a significant role in the development of self-regulation among PCE children, especially those at higher autonomic risk. In particular, PCE children who also exhibit poor autonomic reactivity may be particularly susceptible to environmental influences such as parenting.

Repeated exposure to high-frequency spanking and child externalizing behavior across the first decade: a moderating role for cumulative risk

This study used the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study to examine the effects of repeated exposure to harsh parenting on child externalizing behavior across the first decade of life, and a moderating role for cumulative ecological risk. Maternal report of harsh parenting, defined as high frequency spanking, was assessed at age 1, 3, 5, and 9, along with child externalizing at age 9 (N=2,768). Controlling for gender, race, maternal nativity, and city of residence, we found a cumulative risk index to significantly moderate the effects of repeated harsh parenting on child behavior, with the effects of repeated high-frequency spanking being amplified for those experiencing greater levels of cumulative risk. Harsh parenting, in the form of high frequency spanking, remains a too common experience for children, and results demonstrate that the effects of repeated exposure to harsh parenting across the first decade are amplified for those children already facing the most burden.

Harsh parenting and fearfulness in toddlerhood interact to predict amplitudes of preschool error-related negativity

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Error-related negativity was visible in a group of 4.5-year old children.

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Early harsh parenting moderated the association between toddler fearfulness and preschool ERN amplitudes.

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The pattern of moderation found for ERN was also observed for shyness and cognitive efficiency.

Temperamentally fearful children are at increased risk for the development of anxiety problems relative to less-fearful children. This risk is even greater when early environments include high levels of harsh parenting behaviors. However, the mechanisms by which harsh parenting may impact fearful children's risk for anxiety problems are largely unknown. Recent neuroscience work has suggested that punishment is associated with exaggerated error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential linked to performance monitoring, even after the threat of punishment is removed. In the current study, we examined the possibility that harsh parenting interacts with fearfulness, impacting anxiety risk via neural processes of performance monitoring. We found that greater fearfulness and harsher parenting at 2 years of age predicted greater fearfulness and greater ERN amplitudes at age 4. Supporting the role of cognitive processes in this association, greater fearfulness and harsher parenting also predicted less efficient neural processing during preschool. This study provides initial evidence that performance monitoring may be a candidate process by which early parenting interacts with fearfulness to predict risk for anxiety problems.

Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a victim and a bully/victim: a meta-analysis study

OBJECTIVE

Being bullied has adverse effects on children's health. Children's family experiences and parenting behavior before entering school help shape their capacity to adapt and cope at school and have an impact on children's peer relationship, hence it is important to identify how parenting styles and parent-child relationship are related to victimization in order to develop intervention programs to prevent or mitigate victimization in childhood and adolescence.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of the published literature on parenting behavior and peer victimization using MEDLINE, PsychINFO, Eric and EMBASE from 1970 through the end of December 2012. We included prospective cohort studies and cross-sectional studies that investigated the association between parenting behavior and peer victimization.

RESULTS

Both victims and those who both bully and are victims (bully/victims) were more likely to be exposed to negative parenting behavior including abuse and neglect and maladaptive parenting. The effects were generally small to moderate for victims (Hedge's g range: 0.10-0.31) but moderate for bully/victims (0.13-0.68). Positive parenting behavior including good communication of parents with the child, warm and affectionate relationship, parental involvement and support, and parental supervision were protective against peer victimization. The protective effects were generally small to moderate for both victims (Hedge's g: range: -0.12 to -0.22) and bully/victims (-0.17 to -0.42).

CONCLUSIONS

Negative parenting behavior is related to a moderate increase of risk for becoming a bully/victim and small to moderate effects on victim status at school. Intervention programs against bullying should extend their focus beyond schools to include families and start before children enter school.