Effects of altering diet carbohydrate profile and physical form on zoo-housed giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata

Unlike wild giraffe that primarily consume low starch browse, the preference of zoo-housed giraffe for consuming supplemental feeds over forage could increase the risk of digestive disorders such as ruminal acidosis. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of modifying a supplemental feed's non-fibre carbohydrate profile and physical form on nutritional, behavioural, and blood measures of giraffe in a zoological setting. Six non-lactating, adult, female reticulated giraffes were used in a two-pen modified reversal study using two dietary treatments in seven 21-day periods with data collected on days 15-21. Dietary treatments were a control feed comprised of commercially available products used at the time as the giraffe feed (GF) and an unpelleted experimental feed (EF). On a dry matter basis, GF and EF, respectively, contained 17.0% and 17.4% crude protein, 14.2% and 1.5% starch, 14.9% and 21.3% ethanol-soluble carbohydrates, 22.9% and 26.0% acid detergent fibre (ADF) and 9.50% and 14.9% ND-soluble fibre (NDSF), with modulus of fineness values of 3.62 and 4.82. Supplemental feeds, alfalfa hay, salt, and water were available for ad libitum consumption. Significance was declared at p ≤ 0.05. Intakes of hay, supplemental feeds, and total feed did not differ by diet (p > 0.28), though intakes of starch (0.93 and 0.12 kg; p = 0.05) and ADF (1.83 and 2.23 kg; p = 0.04) differed between GF and EF respectively. Giraffe behaviour values (min/48 h) were greater with EF for total eating (p = 0.04); diets were not detected as different for engagement in oral stereotypes (GF = 433, EF = 318 min/48 h; p = 0.22). Blood glucose was higher on GF than EF (99.0 and 82.3 mg/dL; p = 0.03). The lower EF blood glucose value is more similar to ranges reported for domesticated ruminants. No differences were detected for changes in body weight or body condition score in the 21-day periods (p > 0.32). Modification of supplemental feed carbohydrate profile and physical form can influence behaviour and blood glucose values of zoo-housed giraffe.

Defining repetitive behaviours in frontotemporal dementia

Repetitive behaviours are common manifestations of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Patients with FTD exhibit various types of repetitive behaviours with unique behavioural and cognitive substrates, including compulsivity, lack of impulse control, stereotypy and hoarding. Other sources of repetitive behaviours, such as restrictive interests and insistence on sameness, may also be seen in FTD. Although repetitive behaviours are highly prevalent and potentially discriminatory in this population, their expression varies widely between patients, and the field lacks consensus about the classification of these behaviours. Terms used to describe repetitive behaviours in FTD are highly heterogeneous and may lack precise definitions. This lack of harmonization of the definitions for distinct forms of repetitive behaviour limits the ability to differentiate between pathological behaviours and impedes understanding of their underlying mechanisms. This review examines established definitions of well-characterized repetitive behaviours in other neuropsychiatric disorders and proposes operational definitions applicable to patients with FTD. Building on extant models of repetitive behaviours in non-human and lesion work and models of social behavioural changes in FTD, we describe the potential neurocognitive bases for the emergence of different types of repetitive behaviours in FTD and their potential perpetuation by a predisposition towards habit formation. Finally, examples of distinct therapeutic approaches for different forms of repetitive behaviours are highlighted, along with future directions to accurately classify, measure and treat these symptoms when they impair quality of life.

An enriched maternal environment and stereotypies of sows differentially affect the neuro-epigenome of brain regions related to emotionality in their piglets

Epigenetic mechanisms are important modulators of neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring of animals challenged during pregnancy. Pregnant sows living in a confined environment are challenged with stress and lack of stimulation which may result in the expression of stereotypies (repetitive behaviours without an apparent function). Little attention has been devoted to the postnatal effects of maternal stereotypies in the offspring. We investigated how the environment and stereotypies of pregnant sows affected the neuro-epigenome of their piglets. We focused on the amygdala, frontal cortex, and hippocampus, brain regions related to emotionality, learning, memory, and stress response. Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were investigated in these brain regions of male piglets born from sows kept in an enriched vs a barren environment. Within the latter group of piglets, we compared the brain methylomes of piglets born from sows expressing stereotypies vs sows not expressing stereotypies. DMRs emerged in each comparison. While the epigenome of the hippocampus and frontal cortex of piglets is mainly affected by the maternal environment, the epigenome of the amygdala is mainly affected by maternal stereotypies. The molecular pathways and mechanisms triggered in the brains of piglets by maternal environment or stereotypies are different, which is reflected on the differential gene function associated to the DMRs found in each piglets' brain region . The present study is the first to investigate the neuro-epigenomic effects of maternal enrichment in pigs' offspring and the first to investigate the neuro-epigenomic effects of maternal stereotypies in the offspring of a mammal.

The Role of Dietary Fiber in Improving Pig Welfare

This review aims to discuss the effects of dietary fiber sources with various levels on stereotypic behaviors in sows. There are a variety of dietary fiber sources that are supplemented to feeds for sows. However, dietary fiber sources have different physio-chemical properties, leading to controversial results in feed motivation, nutrient digestibility, and behaviors in sows fed fiber-rich diets. Findings from previous studies indicated that soluble fiber delays nutrient absorption and decreases physical activity after feeding. In addition to this, it increases volatile fatty acid production, provides energy, and prolongs the feeling of satiety. It also prevents certain stereotypies and thus is paramount to sow welfare.

Motor stereotypies in autism spectrum disorder: Clinical randomized study and classification proposal

LAY ABSTRACT

Motor stereotypies are one of the most frequent features in children with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. They may disrupt children's functioning and development and be a potential source of stress for families. Several factors, including sex, age, cognitive ability, and severity of autism spectrum disorder, may influence the presence and intensity of stereotypies. The present study aimed to identify the prevalence of motor stereotypies in a group of children with autism spectrum disorder. In addition, it sought to investigate whether sex, age, cognitive ability, verbal language, neurological comorbidities, and severity of autism spectrum disorder were associated with an increased probability and higher number, duration, and variability of stereotypies. A total of 134 participants aged 2.3-17.6 years underwent a clinical protocol with standardized video-recorded sessions. Stereotypies were identified and classified by two independent evaluators. The prevalence of stereotypies was 56.7%, and a total of 1198 motor stereotypies were captured. Children who were younger, nonverbal, and had higher severity of autism spectrum disorder had an increased probability of presenting stereotypies. Being nonverbal or having higher severity of autism spectrum disorder was also associated with presenting a higher number of stereotypies. Children with developmental delay, intellectual disability, or epilepsy displayed longer stereotypies, and children with developmental delay or intellectual disability additionally presented more diverse stereotypies. As part of the study, the authors present a clinical classification model, a glossary, and video samples of motor stereotypies. The findings of this study suggest that children who are younger, nonverbal, have lower cognitive ability, and have higher severity of autism spectrum disorder may have a higher burden of stereotypies. Earlier intervention and monitoring of these children have the potential to improve their long-term outcomes.

Risk factors for stereotypic behaviour in captive ungulates

Behavioural needs are highly motivated actions critical to a species survival and reproduction. Prolonged restriction of these behaviours can lead to stereotypic behaviours (SB) in captive animals, and this is particularly common in ungulate species. While risk factors for SB have been suggested for some ungulates, no study has integrated these findings to identify which aspects of ungulates' wild behavioural biology and captive husbandry are potential drivers for SB across this clade. We collated SB data from 15 236 individuals across 38 ungulate species from 95 sources, and determined species wild/free-ranging behaviour from 559 additional studies. Bayesian-phylogenetic statistical methods showed that ungulate behavioural needs relating to foraging and mating are particularly affected by captive environments, with promiscuous and browsing species showing the greatest prevalence of SB. Concentrate-only diets and lack of ad libitum feed substrates were also associated with high SB prevalence. This study identifies which ungulates are better suited to captive environments and which species require targeted husbandry, enrichment and breeding protocols in order to meet their behavioural needs. Our approach of applying Bayesian-phylogenetic inference to factors influencing SB within a clade can be used to identify other intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors of reduced animal health and welfare.

Differing animal welfare conceptions and what they mean for the future of zoos and aquariums, insights from an animal welfare audit

Animal welfare is a growing public concern that has the potential to undermine the social license of zoos and aquariums. The lack of consensus on how animal welfare is defined across such a diverse sector combined with and a widespread belief that commercial priorities such as entertaining visitors conflicts with animal welfare, hinders efforts to effectively address this fundamental issue for the sector. Data derived from an audit of habitats across a major North American wildlife attraction revealed that holistic animal welfare assessments undertaken by animal carers embracing three principal constructs of animal welfare, correlated strongly with visitor perceptions of animal happiness. Visitor assessments of animal happiness also correlated with animal carer assessments of social, behavioural and locomotor opportunities and inversely with the prevalence of stereotypic behaviours, supporting the proposition that folk conceptions of animal welfare are more accurate than may have previously been considered to be the case. However, the holistic animal welfare assessment inversely correlated with assessments of a habitat's capacity to safeguard welfare as determined by the facility's veterinary staff, supporting the proposition that tensions exist between physical and psychological components of captive animal welfare provisioning. This further underlines the importance of clarity on how animal welfare is conceived when developing institutional animal welfare strategies. Finally, the data also showed that both holistic animal welfare assessments and visitor perceptions of animal happiness strongly correlated with the level of enjoyment experienced by visitors, challenging the belief that animal welfare competes with the commercial priorities of zoos and aquariums. The audit supports the case that maintaining high animal welfare is a commercial imperative as well as a moral obligation for zoos and aquariums and underlines the necessity to utilize conceptions of animal welfare that acknowledge the centrality of the affective states of animals in maintaining those standards.

Movement disorders in patients with Rett syndrome: A systematic review of evidence and associated clinical considerations

AIM

This systematic review identified and thematically appraised clinical evidence of movement disorders in patients with Rett syndrome (RTT).

METHOD

Using PRISMA criteria, six electronic databases were searched from inception to April 2021. A thematic analysis was then undertaken on the extracted data to identify potential themes.

RESULTS

Following the thematic analysis, six themes emerged: (i) clinical features of abnormal movement behaviors; (ii) mutational profile and its impact on movement disorders; (iii) symptoms and stressors that impact on movement disorders; (iv) possible underlying neurobiological mechanisms; (v) quality of life and movement disorders; and (vi) treatment of movement disorders. Current guidelines for managing movement disorders in general were then reviewed to provide possible treatment recommendations for RTT.

CONCLUSION

Our study offers an enriched data set for clinical investigations and treatment of fine and gross motor issues in RTT. A detailed understanding of genotype-phenotype relationships of movement disorders allows for more robust genetic counseling for families but can also assist healthcare professionals in terms of monitoring disease progression in RTT. The synthesis also showed that environmental enrichment would be beneficial for improving some aspects of movement disorders. The cerebellum, basal ganglia, alongside dysregulation of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop, are likely anatomical targets. A review of treatments for movement disorders also helped to provide recommendations for treating and managing movement disorders in patients with RTT.

Stimulus-Stimulus-Pairing to Reduce Stereotypies in Three Children with Autism during Movie Watching

Autism spectrum disorders represent a challenge for professionals, who must include in their individualized educational interventions goals for core symptoms (social-communication and stereotypies/restricted interests) and comorbidities. The narrowness of interests and the high frequency of repetitive behaviors in children with autism often constitute an obstacle for learning and the quality of life, and for their caregivers as well. In the scientific literature, behavioral interventions based on both aversive and, less commonly, positive procedures have been implemented to reduce the frequency of stereotypies. The following study was carried out with the intention of replicating a Stimulus-Stimulus Pairing procedure applied by Nuzzolo-Gomez, Leonard, Ortiz, Rivera and Greer (2002) in order to reduce stereotypies in children. This procedure was applied to three children diagnosed with autism aged five, almost six and seven years, in order to reduce stereotypies when children watched movies. An A-B-A experimental design with three subjects was used for this research. The results showed a decrease in stereotypies in favor of appropriate behaviors.

Give Them a Toy or Increase Time out of Kennel at Lawn Areas: What Is the Influence of These Interventions on Police Dogs' Welfare?

Simple Summary

Poor environments such as kennels can lead to compromised welfare, as they usually lack many kinds of stimuli. Working dogs are not only kept in kennels, but they are also often housed without any kind of environmental enrichment, allegedly due to motivational reasons, which is conducive to all kinds of behavioural issues. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of two interventions, a toy and going out to a lawn area, on a group of police dogs. Behavioural and physiological data were used to evaluate the animals’ responses to treatments. We identified a large variety of behavioural profiles amongst the animals that presented different levels of stereotypies, which is an abnormal behaviour pattern that can be associated with stress. A tendency to a reduction in these behaviours in high-stereotyping individuals was observed after dogs were able to go to the lawn area, indicating beneficial effects of this intervention. The physiological data indicated that the cumulative effect of interventions can also have a beneficial impact and that environmental enrichment plays an important role in kennelled police dogs’ welfare.

Abstract

This work was aimed at identifying the effectiveness of two interventions applied to a group of eight kennelled police dogs. Interventions consisted of access to a lawn area (350 m²) and “toy” (a 30 cm jute rag roll, hanging from the kennel ceiling), both available for 15 min a day, for four days in a row. We collected behavioural data and faecal samples for cortisol metabolites evaluation before, during and after interventions. Faecal cortisol metabolites levels were significantly reduced (Friedman, X2(3) = 12.450; p = 0.006) during the second round of intervention, regardless of the type of intervention, indicating that the interventions can have a beneficial cumulative effect. Regarding the frequency of stereotyped behaviour, cluster analysis identified two groups of individuals: (1) high-stereotyping individuals (n = 3) that had a tendency to reduce stereotyping behaviours in the lawn intervention when compared to toy intervention (Friedman, X2(3) = 2.530; p = 0.068), and (2) low-stereotyping animals (n = 5) that did not present significant behavioural changes during the experiment. The variety of behavioural and endocrine parameters evaluated highlights the need to account for the individual in behaviour and welfare research. Overall, our results suggest that even simple environmental enrichment can be an effective method to mitigate behaviour and physiological signs of stress.

Rett Syndrome Spectrum in Monogenic Developmental-Epileptic Encephalopathies and Epilepsies: A Review

INTRODUCTION

Progress in the clinical application of next-generation-sequencing-based techniques has resulted in a dramatic increase in the recognized genetic heterogeneity of the Rett syndrome spectrum (RSS). Our awareness of the considerable overlap with pediatric-onset epilepsies and epileptic/developmental encephalopathies (EE/DE) genes is also growing, and the presence of variable clinical features inside a general frame of commonalities has drawn renewed attention into deep phenotyping.

METHODS

We decided to review the medical literature on atypical Rett syndrome and "Rett-like" phenotypes, with special emphasis on described cases with pediatric-onset epilepsies and/or EE-DE, evaluating Neul's criteria for Rett syndrome and associated movement disorders and notable stereotypies.

RESULTS

"Rett-like" features were described in syndromic and non-syndromic monogenic epilepsy- and DE/EE-related genes, in "intellectual disability plus epilepsy"-related genes and in neurodegenerative disorders. Additionally, prominent stereotypies can be observed in monogenic complex neurodevelopmental disorders featuring epilepsy with or without autistic features outside of the RSS.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients share a complex neurodevelopmental and neurological phenotype (developmental delay, movement disorder) with impaired gait, abnormal tone and hand stereotypies. However, the presence and characteristics of regression and loss of language and functional hand use can differ. Finally, the frequency of additional supportive criteria and their distribution also vary widely.

Rethinking Stereotypies in Autism

Stereotyped movements ("stereotypies") are semi-voluntary repetitive movements that are a prominent clinical feature of autism spectrum disorder. They are described in first-person accounts by people with autism as relaxing and that they help focus the mind and cope in overwhelming sensory environments. Therefore, we generally recommend against techniques that aim to suppress stereotypies in individuals with autism. Further, we hypothesize that understanding the neurobiology of stereotypies could guide development of treatments to produce the benefits of stereotypies without the need to generate repetitive motor movements. Here, we link first-person reports and clinical findings with basic neuroanatomy and physiology to produce a testable model of stereotypies. We hypothesize that stereotypies improve sensory processing and attention by regulating brain rhythms, either directly from the rhythmic motor command, or via rhythmic sensory feedback generated by the movements.

Stereotypies in the Autism Spectrum Disorder: Can We Rely on an Ethological Model?

BACKGROUND

Stereotypic behaviour can be defined as a clear behavioural pattern where a specific function or target cannot be identified, although it delays on time. Nonetheless, repetitive and stereotypical behaviours play a key role in both animal and human behaviour. Similar behaviours are observed across species, in typical human developmental phases, and in some neuropsychiatric conditions, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Intellectual Disability. This evidence led to the spread of animal models of repetitive behaviours to better understand the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these dysfunctional behaviours and to gain better insight into their role and origin within ASD and other disorders. This, in turn, could lead to new treatments of those disorders in humans.

METHOD

This paper maps the literature on repetitive behaviours in animal models of ASD, in order to improve understanding of stereotypies in persons with ASD in terms of characterization, pathophysiology, genomic and anatomical factors.

RESULTS

Literature mapping confirmed that phylogenic approach and animal models may help to improve understanding and differentiation of stereotypies in ASD. Some repetitive behaviours appear to be interconnected and mediated by common genomic and anatomical factors across species, mainly by alterations of basal ganglia circuitry. A new distinction between stereotypies and autotypies should be considered.

CONCLUSIONS

Phylogenic approach and studies on animal models may support clinical issues related to stereotypies in persons with ASD and provide new insights in classification, pathogenesis, and management.

Phonic and Motor Stereotypies in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Video Analysis and Neurological Characterization

Stereotypies are among the core symptoms of Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and can cause significant clinical impairment. At present, phonic stereotypies in ASD have been scarcely explored. This study investigates the frequency, variability, and typologies of phonic and motor stereotypies in children with ASD and their association with clinical neurological variables. We examined 35 patients by recording standardized video sessions and administering the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2). Phonic stereotypies were present in 83.0% of the patients. The most prevalent subtypes were noncommunicative vocalizations (60.0%), single syllables (37.1%), and echolalic stereotypies (22.9%). Noncommunicative vocalizations were more frequent in nonverbal patients (OR = 4.629, p = 0.008), while echolalic stereotypies were more represented in verbal patients (OR = 0.279, p = 0.028). Patients with intellectual disability (ID) showed a higher number (F(1,26) = 9.406, p = 0.005) and variability (F(1,25) = 7.174, p = 0.013) of motor stereotypies, with a higher number (F(1,26) = 13.268, p = 0.005) and variability (F(1,26) = 9.490, p = 0.005) of stereotypies involving the head/trunk/shoulders category. Patients with guttural stereotypies showed a higher variability of total motor stereotypies (OR = 1.487, p = 0.032) and self-directed motor stereotypies (OR = 4.389, p = 0.042). These results, combined with a standardized video-analysis, document the frequency and variability of phonic stereotypies among children with ASD. Correlations between specific phonic stereotypies and verbal abilities should be investigated further.

Response to Steroids in IQSEC2-Related Encephalopathy Presenting with Rett-Like Phenotype and Infantile Spasms

Introduction  IQSEC2-related encephalopathy is an X-linked childhood neurodevelopmental disorder with intellectual disability, epilepsy, and autism. This disorder is caused by a mutation in the IQSEC2 gene, the product of which plays an important role in the development of the central nervous system. Case Report  We describe the symptomatology, clinical course, and management of a 17-month-old male child with a novel IQSEC2 mutation. He presented with an atypical Rett syndrome phenotype with developmental delay, autistic features, midline stereotypies, microcephaly, hypotonia and epilepsy with multiple seizure types including late-onset infantile spasms. Spasms were followed by worsening of behavior and cognition, and regression of acquired milestones. Treatment with steroids led to control of spasms and improved attention, behavior and recovery of lost motor milestone. In the past 10 months following steroid therapy, child lags in development, remains autistic with no further seizure recurrence. Conclusion  IQSEC2-related encephalopathy may present with Rett atypical phenotypes and childhood spasms. In resource-limited settings, steroids may be considered for spasm remission in IQSEC2-related epileptic encephalopathy.

A survey-based assessment of risk factors for cross-sucking behaviors in neonatal kittens, Felis catus

Cross-sucking, or non-nutritive sucking on the bodies of littermates, is commonly observed in early-weaned animals. This behavior has been well-documented in production animals, which are often separated from their mothers before weaning. The behavior is less well-understood in other domestic species, such as cats (Felis catus), that can be orphaned due to neglect, maternal death, or accidental separation. Anecdotally, cross-sucking can cause injuries in kittens, sometimes severe enough to warrant euthanasia. To our knowledge, this is the first detailed study of this behavior in domestic cats. We conducted a survey of caretakers (N = 407) of kittens (< 60 days old) with the goal of identifying characteristics of individual kittens, litters, the environment, and husbandry that might be associated with the presence of cross-sucking. The final data set, representing 1358 kittens, was comprised of 301 litters experiencing sucking and 106 litters not experiencing sucking behaviors. Almost all of the kittens represented in the survey (91%) were orphaned. Results suggested that being orphaned (X 2(1) = 42.64, p < 0.001), bottle-fed (X 2(2) = 40.32, p < 0.001), younger (t(405) = 3.48 p < 0.001), separated earlier from the mother (t(376) = 3.10, p = 0.002), and being in an all-male litter (X 2(2) = 7.13, p = 0.03) increased the risks of cross-sucking. Male kittens also were more likely to be recipients of sucking behavior (X 2(1) = 32.30, p < 0.001). No clear associations between the environment or husbandry practices and the presence of sucking behavior were identified. Interruption and separation were the most frequently reported management strategies, but most kittens returned to sucking behavior when reunited. Cross-sucking is a frequently reported behavior problem in orphaned kittens that may indicate distress or poor welfare. Future research should focus on a better understanding of prevention and management strategies, and determination of the effects, if any, of cross-sucking as a kitten on adult cat outcomes or behavior.

Stereotyped, automatized and habitual behaviours: are they similar constructs under the control of the same cerebral areas?

Comprehensive knowledge about higher executive functions of motor control has been covered in the last decades. Critical goals have been targeted through many different technological approaches. An abundant flow of new results greatly progressed our ability to respond at better-posited answers to look more than ever at the challenging neural system functioning. Behaviour is the observable result of the invisible, as complex cerebral functioning. Many pathological states are approached after symptomatology categorisation of behavioural impairments is achieved. Motor, non-motor and psychiatric signs are greatly shared by many neurological/psychiatric disorders. Together with the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia contribute to the expression of behaviour promoting the correct action schemas and the selection of appropriate sub-goals based on the evaluation of action outcomes. The present review focus on the basic classification of higher motor control functioning, taking into account the recent advances in basal ganglia structural knowledge and the computational model of basal ganglia functioning. We discuss about the basal ganglia capability in executing ordered motor patterns in which any single movement is linked to each other into an action, and many actions are ordered into each other, giving them a syntactic value to the final behaviour. The stereotypic, automatized and habitual behaviour's constructs and controls are the expression of successive stages of rule internalization and categorisation aimed in producing the perfect spatial-temporal control of motor command.

Sham-Chewing in Sows Is Associated With Decreased Fear Responses in Their Offspring

We hypothesized that sham-chewing expressed by the dam during gestation affects fetus programming. The goal of this study was to assess the effects of maternal sham-chewing on offspring welfare indicators, such as behavior and physiology. Sows that exhibited consistent sham-chewing on at least two of 6 days of observation (N = 7) were compared with sows that had never performed sham-chewing (non-sham-chewing sows; N = 4) during these 6 days. Salivary samples from sows and piglets were collected and cortisol concentrations were analyzed to assess the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activity as cortisol is a physiological indicator of welfare. Moreover, placental tissue was collected, right after farrowing, to assess cortisol and cortisone concentration. Piglet behavior and fear tests were performed after weaning (one couple per sow). In the fear tests, data was collected in an open field test to determine the states of fear indicators. Non-sham-chewing sows had lower concentrations of cortisol on days 91 and 92 of gestation in the morning. In addition to this, placental cortisol was higher among sham-chewing sows than non-sham-chewing sows. In the open field test, piglets born from non-sham-chewing sows demonstrated more latency to move in the arena and less activity, indicating more fear. Based on our data, we concluded that the expression of maternal sham-chewing is related to less fear in their offspring. Although stereotypies have been studied, attention has not been devoted to the effects of the prenatal period in considering a fetal reprogramming approach.

'People should be allowed to do what they like': Autistic adults' views and experiences of stimming

'Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements' are characterised as core features in the diagnosis of autism, yet many autistic adults (and the neurodiversity movement) have reclaimed them as 'stimming'. Supported by a growing body of scientific research, autistic adults argue that these behaviours may serve as useful coping mechanisms, yet little research has examined stimming from the perspective of autistic adults. Through interviews and focus groups, we asked 32 autistic adults to share their perceptions and experiences of stimming, including the reasons they stim, any value doing so may hold for them and their perceptions of others' reactions to stimming. Using thematic analysis, we identified two themes: stimming as (1) a self-regulatory mechanism and (2) lacking in social acceptance, but can become accepted through understanding. Autistic adults highlighted the importance of stimming as an adaptive mechanism that helps them to soothe or communicate intense emotions or thoughts and thus objected to treatment that aims to eliminate the behaviour.

Prevalence and determinants of motor stereotypies in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Stereotypies are frequently reported in people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but remain one of the less explained phenomena. We aimed to describe, through a systematic review and a meta-analysis, the prevalence of motor stereotypies in ASD and study the factors that influence this prevalence. Our literature search included MEDLINE, Scopus, and PsycINFO databases. Quality and risk of bias were assessed. Thirty-seven studies were included and the median prevalence of motor stereotypies in ASD was 51.8%, ranging from 21.9% to 97.5%. The most frequent determinants associated with a higher number of stereotypies in ASD were a younger age, lower intelligence quotient, and a greater severity of ASD. Moreover, gender did not seem to influence the prevalence of stereotypies. Meta-analytic analysis showed that lower IQ and autism diagnosis (independent of IQ) are associated with a higher prevalence of motor stereotypies (odds ratio = 2.5 and 4.7, respectively). Limitations of the reviewed literature include the use of convenience samples, with small sizes and heterogeneous inclusion criteria, and the predominance of high-functioning autism individuals.

Housing Horses in Individual Boxes Is a Challenge with Regard to Welfare

Horses are mainly housed in individual boxes. This housing system is reported to be highly detrimental with regard to welfare and could trigger the expression of four behavioural indicators of a compromised welfare state: stereotypies, aggressiveness toward humans, unresponsiveness to the environment, and stress-related behaviours. The aim of this study was to identify housing and management factors that could alleviate the detrimental effects of individual boxes on welfare. A total of 187 horses were observed over 50 days by scan sampling. The impact of 12 factors was investigated on the expression of the four behavioural indicators in three different analyses. The results show that the majority of factors tested did not influence the expression of the behavioural indicators. Only three (straw bedding, a window opening onto the external environment, and a reduced quantity of concentrated feed) would have beneficial, although limited, effects. Furthermore, the longer the horses spent in individual boxes, the more likely they were to express unresponsiveness to the environment. To preserve the welfare of horses, it seems necessary to allow free exercise, interactions with conspecifics, and fibre consumption as often as possible, to ensure the satisfaction of the species' behavioural and physiological needs.

Hyperkinetic movement disorders in congenital disorders of glycosylation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) represent an increasing number of rare inherited metabolic diseases associated with abnormal glycan metabolism and disease onset in infancy or early childhood. Most CDG are multisystemic diseases mainly affecting the central nervous system. The aim of the current study was to investigate hyperkinetic movement disorders in patients affected by CDG and to characterize phenomenology based on CDG subtypes.

METHODS

Subjects were identified from a cohort of patients with CDG who were referred to the University Hospital of Catania, Italy. Patients were evaluated by neurologists with expertise in movement disorders and videotaped using a standardized protocol.

RESULTS

A variety of hyperkinetic movement disorders was detected in eight unrelated CDG patients. Involuntary movements were generally observed early in childhood, maintaining a clinical stability over time. Distribution ranged from a generalized, especially in younger subjects, to a segmental/multifocal involvement. In patients with phosphomannomutase 2 CDG, the principal movement disorders included dystonia and choreo-athetosis. In patients affected by other CDG types, the movement disorders ranged from pure generalized chorea to mixed movement disorders including dystonia and complex stereotypies.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperkinetic movement disorder is a key clinical feature in patients with CDG. CDG should be considered in the differential diagnosis of childhood-onset dyskinesia, especially when associated with ataxia, developmental delay, intellectual disability, autism or seizure disorder.

Elevated Sensitivity to Tactile Stimuli in Stereotypic Horses

Although stereotypic behaviors are a common problem in captive animals, why certain individuals are more prone to develop them remains elusive. In horses, individuals show considerable differences in how they perceive and react to external events, suggesting that this may partially account for the emergence of stereotypies in this species. In this study, we focused on crib-biting, the most common stereotypy displayed by horses. We compared how established crib-biters (“CB” = 19) and normal controls (“C” = 18) differed in response to a standard “personality” assessment test battery, i.e., reactivity to humans, tactile sensitivity, social reactivity, locomotor activity, and curiosity vs. fearfulness (both in novel and suddenness situations). Our analyses showed that crib-biters only differed from control horses in their tactile sensitivity, suggesting an elevated sensitivity to tactile stimuli. We suggest that this higher tactile sensitivity could be due to altered dopamine or endogenous opioid physiology, resulting from chronic stress exposition. We discuss these findings in relation to the hypothesis that there may be a genetic predisposition for stereotypic behavior in horses, and in relation to current animal husbandry and management practices.

VGLUT3 gates psychomotor effects induced by amphetamine

Several subtypes of modulatory neurons co-express vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) in addition to their cognate vesicular transporters. These neurons are believed to establish new forms of neuronal communication. The atypical VGLUT3 is of particular interest since in the striatum this subtype is found in tonically active cholinergic interneurons (TANs) and in a subset of 5-HT fibers. The striatum plays a major role in psychomotor effects induced by amphetamine. Whether and how VGLUT3-operated glutamate/ACh or glutamate/5HT co-transmissions modulates psychostimulants-induced maladaptive behaviors is still unknown. Here, we investigate the involvement of VGLUT3 and glutamate co-transmission in amphetamine-induced psychomotor effects and stereotypies. Taking advantage of constitutive and cell-type specific VGLUT3-deficient mouse lines, we tackled the hypothesis that VGLUT3 could gate psychomotor effects (locomotor activity and stereotypies) induced by acute or chronic administration of amphetamine. Interestingly, VGLUT3-null mice demonstrated blunted amphetamine-induced stereotypies as well as reduced striatal ∆FosB expression. VGLUT3-positive varicosities within the striatum arise in part from 5HT neurons. We tested the involvement of VGLUT3 deletion in serotoninergic neurons in amphetamine-induced stereotypies. Mice lacking VGLUT3 specifically in 5HT fibers showed no alteration to amphetamine sensitivity. In contrast, specific deletion of VGLUT3 in cholinergic neurons partially phenocopied the effects observed in the constitutive knock-out mice. Our results show that constitutive deletion of VGLUT3 modulates acute and chronic locomotor effects induced by amphetamine. They point to the fact that the expression of VGLUT3 in multiple brain areas is pivotal in gating amphetamine-induced psychomotor adaptations. OPEN SCIENCE BADGES: This article has received a badge for *Open Materials* because it provided all relevant information to reproduce the study in the manuscript. The complete Open Science Disclosure form for this article can be found at the end of the article. More information about the Open Practices badges can be found at https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/.

A Patient with Beta-Propeller Protein-Associated Neurodegeneration: Treatment with Iron Chelation Therapy

We present a case of beta-propeller protein-associated neurodegeneration, a form of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation. The patient harbored a novel mutation in the WDR45 gene. A detailed video and description of her clinical condition are provided. Her movement disorder phenomenology was characterized primarily by limb stereotypies and gait dyspraxia. The patient's disability was advanced by the time iron-chelating therapy with deferiprone was initiated, and no clinical response in terms of cognitive function, behavior, speech, or movements were observed after one year of treatment.

Aripiprazole Selectively Reduces Motor Tics in a Young Animal Model for Tourette's Syndrome and Comorbid Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder

Tourette’s syndrome (TS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized primarily by motor and vocal tics. Comorbidities such as attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are observed in over 50% of TS patients. We applied aripiprazole in a juvenile rat model that displays motor tics and hyperactivity. We additionally assessed the amount of ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) as an indicator for the presence of vocal tics and evaluated the changes in the striatal neurometabolism using in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) at 11.7T. Thirty-one juvenile spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) underwent bicuculline striatal microinjection and treatment with either aripiprazole or vehicle. Control groups were sham operated and sham injected. Behavior, USVs, and striatal neurochemical profile were analyzed at early, middle, and late adolescence (postnatal days 35 to 50). Bicuculline microinjections in the dorsolateral striatum induced motor tics in SHR juvenile rats. Acute aripiprazole administration selectively reduced both tic frequency and latency, whereas stereotypies, USVs, and hyperactivity remained unaltered. The striatal neurochemical profile was only moderately altered after tic-induction and was not affected by systemic drug treatment. When applied to a young rat model that provides high degrees of construct, face, and predictive validity for TS and comorbid ADHD, aripiprazole selectively reduces motor tics, revealing that tics and stereotypies are distinct phenomena in line with clinical treatment of patients. Finally, our 1H-MRS results suggest a critical revision of the striatal role in the hypothesized cortico-striatal dysregulation in TS pathophysiology.

Variations of stereotypies in individuals with Rett syndrome: A nationwide cross-sectional study in Taiwan

Individuals with Rett syndrome (RTT) can have variable manifestations of stereotypies. In this nation-wide cross-sectional study, we recruited all individuals with RTT in Taiwan diagnosed as RTT by neurologists based on genetic findings and diagnostic criteria. The data were collected using questionnaire. A total 43 cases of typical RTT and 15 cases of atypical RTT, aged from 2.1 to 40.1 years, were enrolled. They included 3 (5.2%) in stage II, 42 (72.4%) in stage III, and 13 (22.4%) in stage IV. All individuals presented with at least one stereotypy. Individuals with atypical RTT had more varied stereotypies (mean: 14 ± 6) compared to those with typical RTT (mean: 9 ± 5) (P = 0.003). Flapping (73.3%) and wringing (58.1%) were the most common hand stereotypies in atypical and typical RTT, respectively. Compared with typical RTT, hair pulling, bruxism, retropulsion, and protrusion of lips were more common in atypical RTT (P = 0.003, P = 0.006, P = 0.003 and <0.001, respectively). The number of stereotypies did not differ among different stages, clinical severities, and hand functions. Although there were no age-related changes in stereotypies in atypical RTT, flapping (P = 0.012), clapping (P = 0.044), and mouthing with single hand (P = 0.009) were significantly more prevalent in individuals aged <10 years with typical RTT, and they decreased after 10 years. In conclusion, our study showed that the stereotypical movements varied in typical and atypical RTT, implying the heterogeneous nature of the disease and the pathogenic mechanisms of RTT with atypical features. Autism Res 2017. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1204-1214. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Developmental Profile and Diagnoses in Children Presenting with Motor Stereotypies

INTRODUCTION

Motor stereotypies represent a typical example of the difficulty in distinguishing non-clinical behaviors (physiological and transient) from symptoms or among different disorders ["primary stereotypies," associated with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disabilities, genetic syndromes, and sensory impairment]. The aim of this study was to obtain an accurate assessment on the relationship between stereotypies and neurodevelopmental disorders.

METHODS

We studied 23 children (3 girls), aged 36-95 months, who requested a consultation due to the persistence or increased severity of motor stereotypies. None of the patients had a previous diagnosis of ASD. The assessment included the Motor Severity Stereotypy Scale (MSSS), the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R), the Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices, the Child Behavior CheckList for ages 1½-5 or 4-18 (CBCL), the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-second edition (ADOS 2).

RESULTS

All patients were showing motor stereotypies for periods of time varying from 6 to 77 months. The MSSS showed that each child had a limited number of stereotypies; their frequency and intensity were mild. The interference of stereotypies was variable; the impairment in daily life was mild. The RBS-R scores were positive for the subscale of "stereotypic behaviors" in all children. Moreover, several children presented other repetitive behaviors, mainly "ritualistic behavior" and "sameness behavior." All patients showed a normal cognitive level. The CBCL evidenced behavioral problems in 22% of the children: internalizing problems, attention, and withdrawn were the main complaints. On the SRS, all but one of the tested patients obtained clinical scores in the clinical range for at least one area. On the ADOS 2, 4 patients obtained scores indicating a moderate level of ASD symptoms, 4 had a mild level, and 15 showed no or minimal signs of ASD.

DISCUSSION

Motor stereotypies in children with normal cognitive level represent a challenging diagnostic issue for which a finely tailored assessment is mandatory in order to define a precise developmental profile. Thus, careful and cautious use of standardized tests is warranted to avoid misdiagnosis. Furthermore, it is hard to consider motor stereotypies, even the primary ones, exclusively as a movement disorder.

Primary complex motor stereotypies in older children and adolescents: clinical features and longitudinal follow-up

BACKGROUND

Complex motor stereotypies are rhythmic, repetitive, fixed, and purposeless movements that stop with distraction. Once believed to occur only in children with autism spectrum or other developmental disorders, their presence in otherwise typically developing children (primary) has been well-established. In primary complex motor stereotypies, little information is available about the long-term outcome of these movements or existing comorbidities.

METHODS

Forty-nine healthy participants (31 boys), ages 9 to 20 years with primary complex motor stereotypies who were previously diagnosed at a pediatric movements disorder clinic, were identified from medical records. Parents or the young adult (if older than age 18), completed a telephone interview evaluating family history, outcome, and comorbidities including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, anxiety, and tics/Tourette syndrome. Standardized questionnaires assessing attention-deficit hyperactivity, obsessive compulsive disorder, and anxiety were used to validate parent report of comorbidities.

RESULTS

Stereotypy onset occurred before age 3 years in 98%. In all but one individual, stereotypies persisted at the time of phone follow-up (follow-up range: 6.8-20.3 years). Positive family history of complex motor stereotypies was identified in 39%. Most participants (92%) had concern for at least one comorbid disorder, including parent-/patient-reported clinically elevated levels of anxiety (73%), attention-deficit hyperactivity (63%), obsessive compulsive disorder (35%), and tics/Tourette syndrome (22%).

CONCLUSION

Primary motor stereotypies typically begin in early childhood and, although reduced in frequency and duration, persist at least through the teenage years. Repetitive movements are associated with a variety of comorbidities that often have a greater functional impact than the stereotypic behavior.

Management and horse-level risk factors for recurrent colic in the UK general equine practice population

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY

Recurrent colic occurs frequently in the general horse population but little evidence exists about what factors place horses at greater risk of recurrent colic.

OBJECTIVES

To quantify time-varying and non time-varying risk factors for recurrent colic among horses attended by first-opinion veterinary surgeons in northwest England.

STUDY DESIGN

Nested case-control study.

METHODS

A nested case-control study was conducted on data from a prospective longitudinal cohort study of 127 horses recruited subsequent to an episode of medical colic. Data were collected on management and recurrent colic episodes at 4-monthly intervals by telephone questionnaires. All recurrent colic episodes were selected as cases; controls were unmatched and randomly selected from all horse-time at risk. Data relating to the 30 days prior to the date of colic or control selection were used to determine exposure status. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to determine risk factors for recurrent colic.

RESULTS

In total, 59 cases and 177 controls were included. The final model showed that horses that displayed crib-biting/windsucking (odds ratio [OR] 10.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.5-41.0) or weaving behaviour (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.5-10.1) had an increased risk of recurrence of colic. Increasing time at pasture reduced the risk of recurrence (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.99-1.0). A significant interaction was found suggesting that the risk associated with crib-biting/windsucking may be modified by feeding fruit/vegetables; however, further research is required before recommendations for feeding practices can be made.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that sufficient access to pasture may be an important means of reducing recurrent colic risk. The behavioural risk factors highlight individuals who may be at increased risk of recurrent colic and whose colic prevention strategies should be carefully managed.

A trial of D-cycloserine to treat stereotypies in older adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorder

OBJECTIVES

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) have core impairments in social communication as well as the presence of repetitive, stereotypic behaviors and restricted interests. Older adolescents and young adults are particularly impacted by these deficits. Preclinical data implicate glutamatergic dysfunction in the pathophysiology of ASDs. D-Cycloserine (DCS), a partial glycineB agonist at the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor site, has been shown to improve sociability in mouse models and a small human study. The sensitivity of the obligatory glycineB co-agonist binding site may change with daily administration of DCS as a result of agonist-induced desensitization. The efficacy of a "pulsed" once-weekly administration versus "daily" administration of DCS was compared.

METHODS

Males and females, ages 14 to 25 years, with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition Text Revision diagnosis of an ASD were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized 10-week trial consisting of 8 weeks of active drug with either weekly or daily administration of 50 mg of DCS followed by a 2-week follow-up visit.

RESULTS

For the purposes of this study, no statistical or clinical differences existed between the 2 dosage groups on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist subscale 3, which measures stereotypies/repetitive movements. When combining groups, a statistically significant decrease of 37% was found from baseline to week 8 when study drug was completed using a linear mixed effects model (P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

D-Cycloserine was shown to be effective in improving stereotypic symptoms in older adolescents and young adults with ASDs measured by the Aberrant Behavior Checklist subscale 3. In addition, DCS was safe and well tolerated.

Resting Is Rusting: A Critical View on Rodent Wheel-Running Behavior

Physical exercise is known to exert various beneficial effects on brain function and bodily health throughout life. In biomedical research, these effects are widely studied by introducing running wheels into the cages of laboratory rodents. Yet, although rodents start to run in the wheels immediately, and perform wheel-running excessively on a voluntary basis, the biological significance of wheel-running is still not clear. Here, we review the current literature on wheel-running and discuss potentially negative side-effects that may give cause for concern. We particularly emphasize on analogies of wheel-running with stereotypic and addictive behavior to stimulate further research on this topic.

Stereotypic behavior in nonhuman primates as a model for the human condition

Stereotypies that develop spontaneously in nonhuman primates can provide an effective model for repetitive stereotyped behavior in people with neurodevelopmental or obsessive-compulsive disorders. The behaviors are similar in form, are similarly affected by environmental conditions, and are improved with similar treatment methods such as enrichment, training, and drug therapy. However, because of a greater number of commonalities in these factors, nonhuman primates may serve as a better model for stereotyped behavior in individuals with autism or intellectual disability than for compulsions in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Because animal models may not be exact in all features of the disorder being studied, it is important to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of using a nonhuman primate model for stereotyped behavior in people with psychological disorders.

A guide to childhood motor stereotypies, tic disorders and the tourette spectrum for the primary care practitioner

Movement disorders presenting in childhood are often complex and a heterogenous group of difficulties which can be a minefield for the primary care doctor. The recent activities of the European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) have included publication of European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other Tic disorders aimed at guiding paediatricians and psychiatrists in managing these children. This paper aims to summarise the key points for primary care teams and impart important facts and general information on related childhood movement disorders in early development.

A substrate trapping mutant form of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase prevents amphetamine-induced stereotypies and long-term potentiation in the striatum

BACKGROUND

Chronic, intermittent exposure to psychostimulant drugs results in striatal neuroadaptations leading to an increase in an array of behavioral responses on subsequent challenge days. A brain-specific striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) regulates synaptic strengthening by dephosphorylating and inactivating several key synaptic proteins. This study tests the hypothesis that a substrate-trapping form of STEP will prevent the development of amphetamine-induced stereotypies.

METHODS

A substrate-trapping STEP protein, TAT-STEP (C-S), was infused into the ventrolateral striatum on each of 5 consecutive exposure days and 1 hour before amphetamine injection. Animals were challenged to see whether sensitization to the stereotypy-producing effects of amphetamine developed. The same TAT-STEP (C-S) protein was used on acute striatal slices to determine the impact on long-term potentiation and depression.

RESULTS

Infusion of TAT-STEP (C-S) blocks the increase of amphetamine-induced stereotypies when given during the 5-day period of sensitization. The TAT-STEP (C-S) has no effect if only infused on the challenge day. Treatment of acute striatal slices with TAT-STEP (C-S) blocks the induction of long-term potentiation and potentates long-term depression.

CONCLUSIONS

A substrate trapping form of STEP blocks the induction of amphetamine-induced neuroplasticity within the ventrolateral striatum and supports the hypothesis that STEP functions as a tonic break on synaptic strengthening.

Keeping the Body Straight in the Unconstrained Locomotion of Normal and Dopamine-Stimulant-Treated Rats

During unconstrained locomotor behavior, rats move in and out of a straight posture of the body (including the head). In the present study, the stability of maintaining a straight body was examined in untreated rats and in rats treated with saline (SAL) or with 1 of 3 dopamine stimulants (n = 4 rats per group). The stability of maintaining a straight body can range from very high (with 0.5 mg/kg quinpirole [QUIN]), to high (first half-session with 5 mg/kg (+)-amphetamine [AMPH]), to very low (second half-session with 5 mg/kg AMPH), or can be maintained at a level similar to that observed in untreated rats (with 1.25mg/kg apomorphine [APO]). Stability was assessed by videotaping the rats and, then, by using frame-by-frame analysis, scoring the cumulative proportion of time spent in a straight posture, the frequency of transitions from one hemisphere to the other without being trapped in the midline plane, and the degree of lateral bending during turning and during walking on a curved path. The present study is one in a series identifying key variables that constrain as many degrees of freedom as possible in rat locomotor behavior. The uncovering of such variables is an indispensible step that precedes dynamic systems stability analysis and provides candidates for key variables for the modeling of motor coordination.

Conserved and sexually dimorphic behavioral responses to biogenic amines in decapitated Drosophila

A preparation of decapitated Drosophila melanogaster has been used for direct application of drugs to the nerve cord. Serotonin, dopamine, and octopamine stimulate locomotion and grooming, showing distinguishable effects that often are potentiated by addition of the vertebrate monoamine oxidase-inhibitor hydrazaline. Many of the hydrazaline-induced effects are sexually dimorphic, with males showing greater responses than females. Behaviors similar to those induced by dopamine can be induced by application of the vertebrate dopamine D2-like receptor agonist quinpirole, whose effects are also sexually dimorphic. In contrast, vertebrate D2-like and D1-like dopamine antagonists result in akinesic states, and D1-like agonists selectively stimulate grooming. These data indicate that Drosophila nerve cord amine receptors are coupled to reflexive behaviors similar to those stimulated by brain dopamine receptors in vertebrates.