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Yuan YZ, Ye C, Sun JH, Hu MY, Huo SJ, Zhu YT, Xiang SY, Yu SQ. Toxicokinetics of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate with low-dose exposure applying fluorescence tracing technique. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 434:115814. [PMID: 34843800 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) belongs to environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EEDCs) and can be rapidly hydrolyzed into the ultimate toxicant mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP). In this study, we used 5-aminofluorescein modified MEHP (MEHP-AF) as a fluorescence tracer to explore the toxicokinetics, including toxicokinetic parameters, absorption and transport across the intestinal mucosal barrier, distribution and pathological changes of organs. While the dose was as lower than 10 mg/kg by intragastric administration, the toxicokinetic parameters obtained by fluorescence microplate method were similar to those with the literatures by chromatography. MEHP-AF can be rapidly absorbed through the intestinal mucosal barrier in rats. In situ organ distribution in mice showed that MEHP-AF was mainly concentrated in the liver, kidney and testis. Our results suggested that the fluorescence tracing technique had the advantages with easy processing, less time-consuming, higher sensitivity for the quantitative determination, In addition, this technology also avoids the interference of exogenous or endogenous DEHP and MEHP in the experimental system. It also can be utilized to the visualization detection of MEHP in situ localization in the absorption organ and the toxic target organ. The results show that this may be a more feasible MEHP toxicological research method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Zhen Yuan
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Chong Ye
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Hui Sun
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Yuan Hu
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Shao-Jie Huo
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Ting Zhu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Su-Yun Xiang
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shu-Qin Yu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China.
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Zhu YT, Yuan YZ, Feng QP, Hu MY, Li WJ, Wu X, Xiang SY, Yu SQ. Food emulsifier polysorbate 80 promotes the intestinal absorption of mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate by disturbing intestinal barrier. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2021; 414:115411. [PMID: 33476678 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Di-2-ethylhexyl phosphate (DEHP) and its main toxic metabolite mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) are the typical endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and widely affect human health. Our previous research reported that synthetic nonionic dietary emulsifier polysorbate 80 (P80, E433) had the promotional effect on the oral absorption of DEHP in rats. The aim of this study was to explore its mechanism of promoting oral absorption, focusing on the mucus barrier and mucosal barrier of the small intestine. A small molecule fluorescent probe 5-aminofluorescein-MEHP (MEHP-AF) was used as a tracker of MEHP in vivo and in vitro. First of all, we verified that P80 promoted the bioavailability of MEHP-AF in the long-term and low-dose exposure of MEHP-AF with P80 as a result of increasing the intestinal absorption of MEHP-AF. Afterwards, experimental results from Western blot, qPCR, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence showed that P80 decreased the expression of proteins (mucus protein mucin-2, tight junction proteins claudin-1 and occludin) related to mucus barrier and mucosal barrier in the intestine, changed the integrity of intestinal epithelial cell, and increased the permeability of intestinal epithelial mucosa. These results indicated that P80 promoted the oral absorption of MEHP-AF by altering the intestinal mucus barrier and mucosal barrier. These findings are of great importance for assessing the safety risks of some food emulsifiers and clarifying the absorption mechanism of chemical pollutants in food, especially for EDCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Zhu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Zhen Yuan
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiu-Ping Feng
- College of Food Sciences and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Yuan Hu
- College of Food Sciences and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Jie Li
- College of Food Sciences and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiu Wu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China
| | - Su-Yun Xiang
- College of Food Sciences and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shu-Qin Yu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, People's Republic of China.
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Kawakami T, Isama K, Jinno H. Skin transferability of phthalic acid ester plasticizers and other plasticizers using model polyvinyl chloride sheets. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2020; 55:1163-1172. [PMID: 32748726 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2020.1795503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The transferability of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and other plasticizers, from model polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets to the skin of 11 subjects was assessed by measuring the amount of substance transferred using PVC sheets containing PAEs and alternative plasticizers of different types and contents. For all subjects, the transferred amount, from sheets containing 28 wt% PAE or from mixed sheets containing 14 wt% each of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and other PAE, was greater than that from sheets containing 15 wt% each of PAE or alternative plasticizer only. A comparison of the transferability of five types of PAE showed that transfer tended to occur more readily as the n-octanol-water partition coefficient increased, suggesting that PAE hydrophobicity affected its transferability. The transferability of the alternative plasticizers di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate and 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester showed a similar trend; however, the transferred amount tended to be higher from model PVC sheets containing 28 wt% PAE or mixed with DEHP. The transferability of PAEs and alternative plasticizers was higher for certain subjects, suggesting individual differences in the transferability of chemicals to the subject's skin surface and is the presence of a group of people comparatively more susceptible to such transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Kawakami
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki city, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kazuo Isama
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Teikyo Heisei University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideto Jinno
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University, Nagoya city, Aichi, Japan
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Wang J, Wu Y, Bao S, Jiang H, Shen G, Chen N. [Experimental Study on Migration Parameters of DEHP in PVC Infusion]. Zhongguo Yi Liao Qi Xie Za Zhi 2019; 43:132-135. [PMID: 30977614 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-7104.2019.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The work explored the DEHP migration parameters in PVC infusion in clinic,based on the previous research on the test model of DEHP migrated from PVC infusion,to assess the safety of PVC infusion.The leaching solution samples in different conditions were evaluated by analysis of the DEHP in leaching solution using GC-MS under simulated clinical transfusion way.The release behavior of DEHP was significantly affected by the storage time,storage temperature,surrounding temperature,dripping speed,sterilization process,volume of the leaching solution,and the property of the leaching solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- Center for Medical Device Evaluation in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009
| | - Yan Wu
- Center for Medical Device Evaluation in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009
| | - Shiyong Bao
- Center for Medical Device Evaluation in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009
| | - Hongqiang Jiang
- Center for Medical Device Evaluation in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009
| | - Guoli Shen
- Zhejiang Crops Hospital of CAPF, Hangzhou, 310051
| | - Ningqing Chen
- Center for Medical Device Evaluation in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009
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Armstrong DL, Rice CP, Ramirez M, Torrents A. Fate of four phthalate plasticizers under various wastewater treatment processes. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2018; 53:1075-1082. [PMID: 29775422 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2018.1474580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The fate of four phthalate plasticizers during wastewater treatment processes at six different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) was investigated. Concentrations of benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisononyl phthalate (DiNP), and diisodecyl phthalate (DiDP) were determined prior to either aerobic or anaerobic (conventional and advanced) treatment, after treatment, and in final, dewatered solids. Despite their elevated use worldwide, the fate of DiNP and DiDP during wastewater treatment have not been well characterized. DEHP was readily degraded during aerobic treatments while anaerobic digestion resulted in either no significant change in concentrations or an increase in concentration, in the case of more advanced anaerobic processes (thermal hydrolysis pretreatment and a two-phase acid/gas process). Impacts of the various treatment systems on DiNP, DiDP, and BBP concentrations were more varied - anaerobic digestion led to significant decreases, increases, or no significant change for these compounds, depending on the treatment facility, while aerobic treatment was generally effective at degrading the compounds. Additionally, thermal hydrolysis pretreatment of sludge prior to anaerobic digestion resulted in increases in DiNP, DiDP, and BBP concentrations. The predicted environmental concentrations for all four compounds in soils after a single biosolids application were calculated and the risk quotients for DEHP in soils were determined. The estimated toxicity risk for DEHP in soils treated with a single application of sludge from any of the six studied WWTPs is lower than the level of concern for acute and chronic risk, as defined by the US EPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana L Armstrong
- a Marine Estuarine Environmental Sciences (MEES) Graduate Program, University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland , USA
| | - Clifford P Rice
- b Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory, ARS-USDA , Beltsville , Maryland , USA
| | - Mark Ramirez
- c DC Water, District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority , Washington, District of Columbia , USA
| | - Alba Torrents
- d Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland , USA
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Campbell JL, Yoon M, Ward PL, Fromme H, Kessler W, Phillips MB, Anderson WA, Clewell HJ, Longnecker MP. Excretion of Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in urine is related to body mass index because of higher energy intake in the overweight and obese. Environ Int 2018; 113:91-99. [PMID: 29421411 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A higher body mass index (BMI) has been positively associated with the rate of excretion of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in urine in data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), suggesting an association between DEHP exposure and BMI. The association, however, may be due to the association between body mass maintenance and higher energy intake, with higher energy intake being accompanied by a higher intake of DEHP. To examine this hypothesis, we ran a Monte Carlo simulation with a DEHP physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for adult humans. A realistic exposure sub-model was used, which included the relation of body weight to energy intake and of energy intake to DEHP intake. The model simulation output, when compared with urinary metabolite data from NHANES, supported good model validity. The distribution of BMI in the simulated population closely resembled that in the NHANES population. This indicated that the simulated subjects and DEHP exposure model were closely aligned with the NHANES population of interest. In the simulated population, the ordinary least squares regression coefficient for log(BMI) as a function of log(DEHP nmol/min) was 0.048 (SE 0.001), as compared with the reported value of 0.019 (SE 0.005). In other words, given our model structure, the higher energy intake in the overweight and obese, and the concomitant higher DEHP exposure, describes the reported relationship between BMI and DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miyoung Yoon
- ScitoVation, LLC, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Peyton L Ward
- Ramboll Environ, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Hermann Fromme
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Munich, Germany
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Martínez MA, Rovira J, Sharma RP, Nadal M, Schuhmacher M, Kumar V. Prenatal exposure estimation of BPA and DEHP using integrated external and internal dosimetry: A case study. Environ Res 2017; 158:566-575. [PMID: 28715785 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to Endocrine disruptors (EDs), such as Bisphenol A (BPA) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), has been associated with obesity and diabetes diseases in childhood, as well as reproductive, behavioral and neurodevelopment problems. The aim of this study was to estimate the prenatal exposure to BPA and DEHP through food consumption for pregnant women living in Tarragona County (Spain). Probabilistic calculations of prenatal exposure were estimated by integrated external and internal dosimetry modelling, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, using a Monte-Carlo simulation. Physical characteristic data from the cohort, along with food intake information from the questionnaires (concentrations of BPA and DEHP in different food categories and the range of the different food ratios), were used to estimate the value of the total dietary intake for the Tarragona pregnancy cohort. The major contributors to the total dietary intake of BPA were canned fruits and vegetables, followed by canned meat and meat products. In turn, milk and dairy products, followed by ready to eat food (including canned dinners), were the most important contributors to the total dietary intake of DEHP. Despite the dietary variations among the participants, the intakes of both chemicals were considerably lower than their respective current tolerable daily intake (TDI) values established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Internal dosimetry estimates suggest that the plasma concentrations of free BPA and the most important DEHP metabolite, mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), in pregnant women were characterized by transient peaks (associated with meals) and short half-lives (< 2h). In contrast, fetal exposure was characterized by a low and sustained basal BPA and MEHP concentration due to a lack of metabolic activity in the fetus. Therefore, EDs may have a greater effect on developing organs in young children or in the unborn child.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Martínez
- Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Departament d'Enginyeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - J Rovira
- Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Departament d'Enginyeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain; Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - R Prasad Sharma
- Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Departament d'Enginyeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - M Nadal
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - M Schuhmacher
- Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Departament d'Enginyeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain; Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - V Kumar
- Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Departament d'Enginyeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain; Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain.
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Mose T, Knudsen LE, Hedegaard M, Mortensen GK. Transplacental Transfer of Monomethyl Phthalate and Mono(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate in a Human Placenta Perfusion System. Int J Toxicol 2017; 26:221-9. [PMID: 17564903 DOI: 10.1080/10915810701352721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The transplacental passage of monomethylphtalate (mMP) and mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (mEHP) was studied using an ex vivo placental perfusion model with simultaneous perfusion of fetal and maternal circulation in a single cotyledon. Umbilical cord blood and placental tissue collected both before and after perfusion were also analyzed. Placentas were obtained immediately after elective cesarean section and dually perfused in a recirculation system. mMP or mEHP was added to maternal perfusion medium to obtain concentrations at 10 and 25 μg/L, respectively. The placental transfer was followed analyzing samples from fetal and maternal perfusion media by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry–mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Four perfusions with mMP indicated a slow transplacental transfer, with a fetomaternal ratio (FM ratio) of 0.30 ± 0.03 after 150 min of perfusion. Four perfusions with mEHP indicated a very slow or nonexisting placental transfer. mEHP was only detected in fetal perfusion media from two perfusions, giving rise to FM ratios of 0.088 and 0.20 after 150 min of perfusion. Detectable levels of mMP, mEHP, monoethylphthalate (mEP), and monobutylphthalate were found in tissue. Higher tissue levels of mMP after perfusions with mMP compared to perfusions with mEHP suggest an accumulation of mMP during perfusion. No tendency for accumulation of mEHP was observed during perfusions with mEHP compared to perfusions with mMP. Detectable levels of mEHP and mEP were found in umbilical cord plasma samples. mMP and possibly other short-chained phthalate monoesters in maternal blood can cross the placenta by slow transfer, whereas the results indicate no placental transfer of mEHP. Further studies are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Mose
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Institute of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Abstract
Phthalate esters (PAEs) are large-volume chemicals and are found ubiquitously in soil as a result of widespread plasticulture and waste disposal. Food plants such as vegetables may take up and accumulate PAEs from soil, potentially imposing human health risks through dietary intake. In this study, we carried out a cultivation study using lettuce, strawberry, and carrot plants to determine the potential of plant uptake, translocation, and metabolism of di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and their primary metabolites mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP). All four compounds were detected in the plant tissues, with the bioconcentration factors (BCFs) ranging from 0.16 ± 0.01 to 4.78 ± 0.59. However, the test compounds were poorly translocated from roots to leaves, with a translocation factor below 1. Further, PAEs were readily transformed to their monoesters following uptake. Incubation of PAEs and monoalkyl phthalate esters (MPEs) in carrot cell culture showed that DnBP was hydrolyzed more rapidly than DEHP, while the monoesters were transformed more quickly than their parent precursors. Given the extensive metabolism of PAEs to monoesters in both whole plants and plant cells, metabolism intermediates such as MPEs should be considered when assessing human exposure via dietary intake of food produced from PAE-contaminated soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiang Sun
- †Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
- ‡College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Xiaoqin Wu
- †Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Jay Gan
- †Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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Adachi K, Suemizu H, Murayama N, Shimizu M, Yamazaki H. Human biofluid concentrations of mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate extrapolated from pharmacokinetics in chimeric mice with humanized liver administered with di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 39:1067-1073. [PMID: 25867688 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/14/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is a reproductive toxicant in male rodents. The aim of the current study was to extrapolate the pharmacokinetics and toxicokinetics of mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP, a primary metabolite of DEHP) in humans by using data from oral administration of DEHP to chimeric mice transplanted with human hepatocytes. MEHP and its glucuronide were detected in plasma from control mice and chimeric mice after single oral doses of 250mg DEHP/kg body weight. Biphasic plasma concentration-time curves of MEHP and its glucuronide were seen only in control mice. MEHP and its glucuronide were extensively excreted in urine within 24h in mice with humanized liver. In contrast, fecal excretion levels of MEHP glucuronide were high in control mice compared with those with humanized liver. Adjusted animal biomonitoring equivalents from chimeric mice studies were scaled to human biomonitoring equivalents using known species allometric scaling factors and in vitro metabolic clearance data with a simple physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model. Estimated urine MEHP concentrations in humans were consistent with reported concentrations. This research illustrates how chimeric mice transplanted with human hepatocytes in combination with a simple PBPK model can assist evaluations of pharmacokinetics or toxicokinetics of the primary or secondary metabolites of DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichiro Adachi
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Suemizu
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki 210-0821, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan.
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Chi J, Gao J. Effects of Potamogeton crispus L.-bacteria interactions on the removal of phthalate acid esters from surface water. Chemosphere 2015; 119:59-64. [PMID: 24968306 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the mechanism of submerged macrophyte-bacteria interactions on the removal of phthalic acid esters from surface water, experiments with and without Potamogeton crispus L. were performed. A two-compartment (i.e., water and plant) kinetic model was developed. The model adequately described the variation of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in the plant-water system by providing the first-order rate constants of plant uptake (k1) and release (k2), microbial degradation in water (k3) and plant degradation (k4). During 10-d incubation, the presence of P. crispus enhanced the removal of DBP and DEHP from water by 6.3% and 22.4%. Compared with the experiment without P. crispus, biodegradation of DBP in water with P. crispus decreased by 8.3% because of plant uptake even though k3 increased by 30%. 21.4% of DBP transferred from water to plants, of which only small amount (5.1%) retained in the plant and the rest (94.9%) was degraded. Different from DBP, biodegradation of DEHP in water with P. crispus was a slightly higher than that without P. crispus. 25.5% of DEHP transferred from water to plants, of which a large portion (73.3%) retained in the plant and the rest (26.7%) was degraded. This finding reveals that the enhancement of DBP removal from surface water is mainly related to faster degradation in the plant, whereas it is mainly related to higher plant accumulation for DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chi
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Jing Gao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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12
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Abstract
CONTEXT Experimental studies have demonstrated that phthalate exposure is associated with skeletal malformations and an imbalance in bone homeostasis. However, few studies have evaluated the association between phthalates and human bone health. OBJECTIVES We evaluated whether urinary phthalate metabolites were associated with total hip and femur neck bone mineral density (BMD) and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women (≥50 y old). DESIGN We analyzed data from the 2005-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) for 398 postmenopausal women ≥ 50 years of age. Eleven phthalate metabolites were selected with a detection rate ≥ 60% and were categorized into quartiles. Total hip and femur neck BMD measurements were obtained using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry bone densitometry. Osteoporosis was defined based on the World Health Organization criteria, with thresholds of 0.64 and 0.56 g/cm(2) or less for the total hip and femur neck, respectively. RESULTS Increases in the urinary mono-n-butyl phthalate, mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, and monobenzyl phthalate quartiles were significantly associated with reduced total hip or femur neck BMD. Postmenopausal women with the highest levels of mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(carboxyoctyl) phthalate, and the sum of the three di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites were more likely to have an increased risk for total hip or femur neck osteoporosis than those with the lowest levels of these metabolites. CONCLUSION Urinary phthalate metabolites were associated with low BMD and high osteoporosis risk in postmenopausal women. Our findings suggest that background phthalate exposure may unfavorably affect bone homeostasis and BMD in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung-bok Min
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (K.M.), Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 443-380, Republic of Korea; and Institute of Health and Environment (J.M.), Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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13
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Abstract
Exposure to environmental chemicals may precipitate autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in genetically susceptible children. Differences in the efficiency of the glucuronidation process may substantially modulate substrate concentrations and effects. To determine whether the efficiency of this pathway is compromised in children with ASD, we measured the efficiency of glucuronidation for a series of metabolites derived from the commonly used plasticizer, diethylhexyl phthalate. Spot urines were collected and analyzed for the fraction of each metabolite conjugated by isotope dilution-liquid chromatography mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry. The degree of glucuronidation was lower with the ASD group. The glucuronidation pathway may differ in some children with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Peter Stein
- Department of Surgery, School of Osteopathic Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 2 Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA,
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14
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Chang-Liao WL, Hou ML, Chang LW, Lee CJ, Tsai YM, Lin LC, Tsai TH. Determination and pharmacokinetics of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rats by ultra performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Molecules 2013; 18:11452-66. [PMID: 24043141 PMCID: PMC6269943 DOI: 10.3390/molecules180911452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used to increase the flexibility of plastics for industrial products. However, the illegal use of the plasticizer DEHP in food and drinks has been reported in Taiwan in 2011. In order to assess the exact extent of the absorption of DEHP via the oral route, the aim of this study is to develop a reliable and validated ultra performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method to evaluate the oral bioavailability of DEHP in rats. The optimal chromatographic separation of DEHP and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP; used as internal standard) were achieved on a C18 column. The mobile phase was consisted of 5 mM ammonium acetate-methanol (11:89, v/v) with a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min. The monitoring ion transitions were m/z 391.4 → 149.0 for DEHP and m/z 313.3 → 149.0 for BBP. The mean matrix effects of DEHP at low, medium and high concentrations were 94.5 ± 5.7% and 100.1 ± 2.3% in plasma and feces homogenate samples, respectively. In conclusion, the validated UPLC-MS/MS method is suitable for analyzing the rat plasma sample of DEHP and the oral bioavailability of DEHP was about 7% in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ling Chang-Liao
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
| | - Mei-Ling Hou
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
| | - Li-Wen Chang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
| | - Chia-Jung Lee
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
| | - Yin-Meng Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
| | - Lie-Chwen Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, No. 155-1, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St., Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St, Beitou District, Taipei 112, Taiwan; E-Mails: (W.-L.C-L.); (M.-L.H.); (L.-W.C.); (C.-J.L.); (Y.-M.T.); (L.-C.L.)
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung 404, Taiwan
- Department of Education and Research, Taipei City Hospital, No.145, Zhengzhou Rd., Datong Dist., Taipei 103, Taiwan
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +886-2-2826-7115; Fax: +886-2-2822-5044
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15
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Martinez-Arguelles DB, Campioli E, Culty M, Zirkin BR, Papadopoulos V. Fetal origin of endocrine dysfunction in the adult: the phthalate model. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 137:5-17. [PMID: 23333934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer with endocrine disrupting properties that is found ubiquitously in the environment as well as in human amniotic fluid, umbilical cord blood, human milk, semen, and saliva. It is used in the industry to add flexibility to polyvinyl chloride-derived plastics and its wide spread use and presence has resulted in constant human exposure through fetal development and postnatal life. Epidemiological studies have suggested an association between phthalate exposures and human reproductive effects in infant and adult populations. The effects of fetal exposure to phthalates on the male reproductive system were unequivocally shown on animal models, principally rodents, in which short term deleterious reproductive effects are well established. By contrast, information on the long term effects of DEHP in utero exposure on gonadal function are scarce, while its potential effects on other organs are just starting to emerge. The present review focuses on these novel findings, which suggest that DEHP exerts more complex and broader disruptive effects on the endocrine system and metabolism than previously thought. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "CSR 2013".
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Martinez-Arguelles
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre and Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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16
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Lorber M, Calafat AM. Dose reconstruction of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate using a simple pharmacokinetic model. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120:1705-10. [PMID: 23010619 PMCID: PMC3548287 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1205182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), used primarily as a plasticizer for polyvinyl chloride, is found in a variety of products. Previous studies have quantified human exposure by back calculating intakes based on DEHP metabolite concentrations in urine and by determining concentrations of DEHP in exposure media (e.g., air, food, dust). OBJECTIVES To better understand the timing and extent of DEHP exposure, we used a simple pharmacokinetic model to "reconstruct" the DEHP dose responsible for the presence of DEHP metabolites in urine. METHODS We analyzed urine samples from eight adults for four DEHP metabolites [mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate, and mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate]. Participants provided full volumes of all voids over 1 week and recorded the time of each void and information on diet, driving, and outdoor activities. Using a model previously calibrated on a single person self-dosed with DEHP in conjunction with the eight participants' data, we used a simple trial-and-error method to determine times and doses of DEHP that resulted in a best fit of predicted and observed urinary concentrations of the metabolites. RESULTS The average daily mean and median reconstructed DEHP doses were 10.9 and 5.0 µg/kg-day, respectively. The highest single modeled dose of 60 µg/kg occurred when one study participant reported consuming coffee and a bagel with egg and sausage that was purchased at a gas station. About two-thirds of all modeled intake events occurred near the time of reported food or beverage consumption. Twenty percent of the modeled DEHP exposure occurred between 2200 hours and 0500 hours. CONCLUSIONS Dose reconstruction using pharmacokinetic models-in conjunction with biomonitoring data, diary information, and other related data-can provide a powerful means to define timing, magnitude, and possible sources of exposure to a given contaminant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Lorber
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.
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17
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Lorber M, Koch HM, Angerer J. A critical evaluation of the creatinine correction approach: can it underestimate intakes of phthalates? A case study with di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21:576-586. [PMID: 21289653 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2010.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/21/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The creatinine correction approach has been used to estimate daily intake for contaminants whose primary route of elimination is through urine. This method is challenged using the phthalate di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) as an example. An alternate prediction approach based on human experimental metabolism and urinary excretion data on DEHP was developed. This alternate model was developed from urine measurements of four metabolites of DEHP from two individuals partaking in different experiments, for up to 44 h after known exposures. Particular attention was paid to the changing ratios of the metabolites over time: they took a certain form when exposure was in the "near" (the past few hours) versus the "distant" (24 h or more) past. The creatinine correction approach was applied to measurements of the same four metabolites from 18 individuals in the National Health And Nutrition Evaluation Survey (NHANES) 2003/2004. The alternate model was also applied to these individuals, and the results were compared. Predictions using the two methods were similar or the creatinine correction predicted higher concentrations when the ratio suggested that the DEHP exposure was "near" in time, but the alternate approach predicted intakes that were an order of magnitude higher when the ratios suggested that the intake was "distant". As much as 25% of all NHANES measurements contain metabolites whose key ratio suggest that exposure was "distant". Uncertainties notwithstanding, the analysis in this article suggests that the creatinine correction approach should be used cautiously for DEHP and possibly other contaminants with similar exposure characteristics: rapid metabolism with metabolite urine elimination half-lives on the order of hours, and exposure patterns that may not be continuous and ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Lorber
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, District of Columbia 20460, USA.
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18
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Abstract
Exposure assessment analyses conducted in Europe have concluded that the primary pathway of exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is through the diet. The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether urinary DEHP metabolite data from the 2007-2008 National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES) demonstrate relationships with reported food-fasting time consistent with diet as the predominant exposure pathway. Previous controlled-dosing data demonstrate that DEHP metabolite concentrations in urine first rise and then decline over time, with first-order elimination becoming evident at about 6 h post exposure. Regression of the concentrations of four key DEHP metabolites vs reported fasting times between 6 and 18 h in adults resulted in apparent population-based urinary elimination half-lives, consistent with those previously determined in a controlled-dosing experiment, supporting the importance of the dietary pathway for DEHP. For fasting times less than about 6 h, sampling session (morning, afternoon, or evening) affected the measured metabolite concentrations. Evening samples showed the highest metabolite concentrations, supporting a hypothesis of recent daily dietary exposures from multiple meals, whereas morning and afternoon samples for fasting times less than 6 h were similar and somewhat lower than evening samples, consistent with less-substantial early day dietary exposure. Variations in children's bodyweight-normalized creatinine excretion and food intake rates contribute to a strong inverse relationship between urinary DEHP metabolite concentrations and age under age 18. Finally, a previously published pharmacokinetic model for DEHP demonstrates that time since previous urinary void, a parameter not measured in NHANES, is predicted to result in non-random effects on measured urinary concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesa L Aylward
- Summit Toxicology, LLP, Falls Church, Virginia 22044, USA.
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19
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Aylward LL, Hays SM. Consideration of dosimetry in evaluation of ToxCast™ data. J Appl Toxicol 2011; 31:741-51. [PMID: 21381051 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 10/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Toxcast™ program has the stated goal of predicting hazard, characterizing toxicity pathways and prioritizing the toxicity testing of environmental chemicals through the use of in vitro high-throughput screening (HTS) assays. This analysis integrates data from biomonitoring and from in vivo toxicity and pharmacokinetic studies to examine the physiological relevance of the tested and responding in vitro concentrations for five case study chemicals: triclosan, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, perfluorooctanoic acid, monobutyl phthalate and mono-2(ethylhexyl)phthalate. This analysis also examines the ToxCast™ phase 1 data set for approximately 50 chemicals belonging to four 'common mechanism groups' which have been the subject of cumulative risk assessments by the US EPA for both the pattern of key responses and the relative potencies of included chemicals compared with the in vivo relative potencies. Responding concentrations in vitro were generally in the range of serum or plasma concentrations associated with no-observed to lowest-observed effect levels for the case study chemicals, while available biomonitoring data demonstrating actual exposures were generally lower. ToxCast™ assay endpoints related to acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition had low sensitivity for detecting organophosphate pesticides but good sensitivity for detecting N-methyl carbamates. However, in vitro relative potencies did not correlate with in vivo potency. Both qualitative and quantitative predictive power is probably affected by the lack of comprehensive metabolic activity in most current in vitro systems explored in the ToxCast™ program, and this remains a fundamental challenge for high-throughput toxicity screening efforts.
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20
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Hines CJ, Hopf NBN, Deddens JA, Silva MJ, Calafat AM. Estimated daily intake of phthalates in occupationally exposed groups. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21:133-141. [PMID: 20010977 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2009.62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 11/04/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Improved analytical methods for measuring urinary phthalate metabolites have resulted in biomarker-based estimates of phthalate daily intake for the general population, but not for occupationally exposed groups. In 2003-2005, we recruited 156 workers from eight industries where materials containing diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and/or di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were used as part of the worker's regular job duties. Phthalate metabolite concentrations measured in the workers' end-shift urine samples were used in a simple pharmacokinetic model to estimate phthalate daily intake. DEHP intake estimates based on three DEHP metabolites combined were 0.6-850 μg/kg/day, with the two highest geometric mean (GM) intakes in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film manufacturing (17 μg/kg/day) and PVC compounding (12 μg/kg/day). All industries, except phthalate manufacturing, had some workers whose DEHP exposure exceeded the U.S. reference dose (RfD) of 20 μg/kg/day. A few workers also exceeded the DEHP European tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 50 μg/kg/day. DEP intake estimates were 0.5-170 μg/kg/day, with the highest GM in phthalate manufacturing (27 μg/kg/day). DBP intake estimates were 0.1-76 μg/kg/day, with the highest GMs in rubber gasket and in phthalate manufacturing (17 μg/kg/day, each). No DEP or DBP intake estimates exceeded their respective RfDs. The DBP TDI (10 μg/kg/day) was exceeded in three rubber industries and in phthalate manufacturing. These intake estimates are subject to several uncertainties; however, an occupational contribution to phthalate daily intake is clearly indicated in some industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia J Hines
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio 45230, USA.
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21
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BEARR JONATHANS, STAPLETON HEATHERM, MITCHELMORE CARYSL. Accumulation and DNA damage in fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) exposed to 2 brominated flame-retardant mixtures, Firemaster 550 and Firemaster BZ-54. Environ Toxicol Chem 2010; 29:722-9. [PMID: 20821500 PMCID: PMC4332595 DOI: 10.1002/etc.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Firemaster 550 and Firemaster BZ-54 are two brominated formulations that are in use as replacements for polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants. Two major components of these mixtures are 2,3,4,5-tetrabromo-ethylhexylbenzoate (TBB) and 2,3,4,5-tetrabromo-bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (TBPH). Both have been measured in environmental matrices; however, scant toxicological information exists. The present study aimed to determine if these brominated flame-retardant formulations are bioavailable and adversely affect DNA integrity in fish. Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were orally exposed to either FM 550, FM BZ54, or the nonbrominated form of TBPH, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) for 56 d and depurated (e.g., fed clean food) for 22 d. At several time points, liver and blood cells were collected and assessed for DNA damage. Homogenized fish tissues were extracted and analyzed on day 0 and day 56 to determine the residue of TBB and TBPH and the appearance of any metabolites using gas chromatography-electron-capture negative ion mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-MS). Significant increases (p < 0.05) in DNA strand breaks from liver cells (but not blood cells) were observed during the exposure period compared with controls, although during depuration these levels returned to control. Both parent compounds, TBB and TBPH, were detected in tissues at approximately 1% of daily dosage along with brominated metabolites. The present study provides evidence for accumulation, metabolism, and genotoxicity of these new formulation flame retardants in fish and highlights the potential adverse effects of TBB- and TBPH-formulated fire retardants to aquatic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- JONATHAN S. BEARR
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Sciences, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Maryland 20688, USA
- Department of Toxicology, University of Maryland–Baltimore, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
| | - HEATHER M. STAPLETON
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27706, USA
| | - CARYS L. MITCHELMORE
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Sciences, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Maryland 20688, USA
- To whom correspondence may be addressed ()
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22
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Lorber M, Angerer J, Koch HM. A simple pharmacokinetic model to characterize exposure of Americans to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2010; 20:38-53. [PMID: 19127283 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2008.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 09/04/2008] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A simple pharmacokinetic model to predict concentrations of metabolites of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, DEHP, in humans starting from intakes of DEHP was developed and applied. This model predicts serum and urine concentrations of five DEHP metabolites: MEHP, 5oxo-MEHP, 5OH-MEHP, 5cx-MEPP, and 2cx-MMHP. The model was calibrated using data from an individual who dosed himself with 48.5 mg DEHP, and then took blood and urine samples over a 44-h period. The calibrated model was then used in two applications: one on a second set of individuals whose exposure to DEHP was through PVC medical devices in a blood platelet donation procedure, and one on background exposures in the United States (US). Based on 2001/02 NHANES data, median US background urine concentrations of MEHP, 5OH-MEHP, and 5oxo-MEHP are 4.1, 20.1, and 14.0 microg/l, respectively. Creatine and urine volume-correction approaches were used to backcalculate an average daily dose of DEHP in the range of 0.6-2.2 microg/kg per day. A "background cohort" including 8 individuals and 57 complete days of urination were assumed to be exposed to1.5 microg/kg per day, spread out in equal doses of 0.3 microg/kg per day at 0900, 1200, 1500, 1800, and 2100 h. The average predicted urine concentrations were 4.6, 15.9, and 9.4 microg/l for MEHP, 5OH-MEHP, and 5oxo-MEHP. These are similar, but the two secondary metabolites are slightly lower than medians found in NHANES. This slight difference between the NHANES results and the background simulations could have been due to differences in metabolism between the individual who provided the calibration data (61-year-old Caucasian male) and the general US population. Another explanation evaluated was that urine concentrations further from the time of exposure may have larger disparities between MEHP and the two secondary metabolites as compared with concentrations measured closer to the time of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Lorber
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20460, USA.
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23
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Lyche JL, Gutleb AC, Bergman A, Eriksen GS, Murk AJ, Ropstad E, Saunders M, Skaare JU. Reproductive and developmental toxicity of phthalates. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2009; 12:225-49. [PMID: 20183522 DOI: 10.1080/10937400903094091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The purposes of this review are to (1) evaluate human and experimental evidence for adverse effects on reproduction and development in humans, produced by exposure to phthalates, and (2) identify knowledge gaps as for future studies. The widespread use of phthalates in consumer products leads to ubiquitous and constant exposure of humans to these chemicals. Phthalates were postulated to produce endocrine-disrupting effects in rodents, where fetal exposure to these compounds was found to induce developmental and reproductive toxicity. The adverse effects observed in rodent models raised concerns as to whether exposure to phthalates represents a potential health risk to humans. At present, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) have been demonstrated to produce reproductive and developmental toxicity; thus, this review focuses on these chemicals. For the general population, DEHP exposure is predominantly via food. The average concentrations of phthalates are highest in children and decrease with age. At present, DEHP exposures in the general population appear to be close to the tolerable daily intake (TDI), suggesting that at least some individuals exceed the TDI. In addition, specific high-risk groups exist with internal levels that are several orders of magnitude above average. Urinary metabolites used as biomarkers for the internal levels provide additional means to determine more specifically phthalate exposure levels in both general and high-risk populations. However, exposure data are not consistent and there are indications that secondary metabolites may be more accurate indicators of the internal exposure compared to primary metabolites. The present human toxicity data are not sufficient for evaluating the occurrence of reproductive effects following phthalate exposure in humans, based on existing relevant animal data. This is especially the case for data on female reproductive toxicity, which are scarce. Therefore, future research needs to focus on developmental and reproductive endpoints in humans. It should be noted that phthalates occur in mixtures but most toxicological information is based on single compounds. Thus, it is concluded that it is important to improve the knowledge of toxic interactions among the different chemicals and to develop measures for combined exposure to various groups of phthalates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan L Lyche
- Department of Production Animal Clinical Science, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway.
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24
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Vandenhende F, Eilers P, Ledent E, Renard D, Tibaldi F. Joint detection of important biomarkers and optimal dose-response model using penalties. Stat Med 2008; 26:4876-88. [PMID: 17579922 DOI: 10.1002/sim.2960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
We propose a method to jointly detect influential biomarkers and estimate how they change with dose. The assessment is made in dose-ranging trials collecting multiple outcomes for efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics. We regress all these outcomes versus a non-parametric transformation of the dose. The regression coefficients and the parameters from the dose-response model are simultaneously estimated using a penalized alternating least-squares method. We illustrate the technique with a phase I clinical trial and a metabonomic experiment in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Vandenhende
- Global Statistics, Eli Lilly and Company, Mont-Saint-Guibert, Belgium.
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25
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Burkhart HM, Joyner N, Niles S, Ploessl J, Everett J, Iannettoni M, Richenbacher W. Presence of Plasticizer Di-2(ethylhexyl)phthalate in Primed Extracorporeal Circulation Circuits. ASAIO J 2007; 53:365-7. [PMID: 17515730 DOI: 10.1097/mat.0b013e3180317395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Many centers advocate the use of a standby wet-primed extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) circuit for rapid deployment during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, concerns with regard to the potential health hazards associated with the release of the plasticizer di-2(ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing exist. The purpose of this study was to determine the time course of DEHP release from a preprimed ECMO circuit and to evaluate the effect of PVC tubing coatings on DEHP release. Seven circuits including three uncoated (Medtronic, Medtronic with albumin, and Medtronic Super Tygon) and four attenuated surfaces (Carmeda, COBE Smart, Medtronic Trillium, and Terumo x-coated) were primed with Plasmalyte A. Samples of the circuit prime were collected over a period of 2 weeks and were analyzed for DEHP, using gas chromatography. Results were compared by using a two-tailed t test. One coated (Carmeda) and all three uncoated circuits leached DEHP. The greatest amount of leaching occurred in the uncoated Medtronic tubing with albumin. The COBE Smart, Medtronic Trillium, and Terumo x-coated circuits had undetectable amounts of DEHP (p = 0.006 vs Medtronic uncoated). Prepriming an ECMO circuit composed of uncoated PVC tubing is associated with DEHP release. Using coated PVC tubing appears to eliminate DEHP release over a 2-week period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold M Burkhart
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Children's Hospital of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
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Koo HJ, Lee BM. Toxicokinetic relationship between di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2007; 70:383-7. [PMID: 17454563 DOI: 10.1080/15287390600882150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The toxicokinetic relationship between di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), a major metabolite of DEHP, was investigated in Sprague-Dawley rats orally treated with a single dose of 14C-DEHP. Urinary excretion of total 14C-DEHP and of its metabolites was followed by liquid scintillation counting (LSC). Concentrations of DEHP and MEHP were determined 6, 24, and 48 h after treatment in rat serum and 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after treatment in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). After 24 h, peak concentrations of MEHP in both urine and serum were observed in animals treated with 40, 200, or 1000 mg DEHP/kg. HPLC showed that general toxicokinetic parameters, such as Tmax (h), Cmax (microg/ml), Ke (1/h), and AUC (microg-h/ml/) were greater for MEHP than DEHP in both urine and serum. In contrast, the half-lives (t1/2 [h]) of DEHP were greater than those of MEHP. The AUC ratios between DEHP and MEHP were relatively smaller in serum than in urine, suggesting the important role of urinary DEHP data for exposure assessment of DEHP. The toxicokinetic relationship between DEHP and MEHP in rats suggests that DEHP exposure assessment should be based on DEHP and MEHP in urine and serum for risk assessment applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jung Koo
- Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Kyonggi-do, South Korea
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Norman A, Börjeson H, David F, Tienpont B, Norrgren L. Studies of uptake, elimination, and late effects in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) dietary exposed to Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) during early life. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2007; 52:235-42. [PMID: 17180483 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-005-5089-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2005] [Accepted: 07/17/2005] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The phthalate esters are a group of industrial chemicals considered to have endocrine-disrupting properties. The most common tonnage product among these, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), is widely spread in the environment. The objectives with the present work were to study uptake and metabolism of orally administered DEHP and its major metabolite mono-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (MEHP) and to evaluate the impact of early life exposure on sex differentiation in Atlantic salmon. The feeding with contaminated diet started immediately after yolk sac resorption and continued for 4 weeks. Nominal concentrations of DEHP in the diet were 400 (measured 359), 800 (measured 827), and 1500 (measured 1648) mg DEHP/kg and a control group was fed food mixed with solvent. After the exposure period, fish were fed non-contaminated diet until final sampling 4 months post-exposure. There were no effects on growth or survival of the fish and no late effects on hepatosomatic index or sex ratio. However, the histological examination of gonads from fish exposed to 1500 mg DEHP/kg revealed a small but significant incidence (3%) of intersex fish (ovo-testis). Chemical residues of DEHP and MEHP were analyzed weekly during the first 3 months of the post-exposure period. Both DEHP and MEHP were rapidly eliminated to near background levels within one week post exposure. The study indicates that exposure of Atlantic salmon to relatively high concentrations of DEHP during a sensitive part of the life cycle may interfere with gonad differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Norman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7028, S-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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Shelby MD. NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). NTP CERHR MON 2006:v, vii-7, II-iii-xiii passim. [PMID: 19407857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR) conducted an updated evaluation of the potential for DEHP to cause adverse effects on reproduction and development in humans. The first CERHR expert panel evaluation of DEHP was completed in 2000 by the Phthalates Expert Panel. CERHR selected DEHP for an updated evaluation because of: (1) widespread human exposure, (2) public and government interest in adverse health effects, (3) recently available human exposure studies, and (4) the large number of relevant toxicity papers published since the earlier evaluation. DEHP (CAS RN: 117-81-7) is a high production volume chemical used as a plasticizer of polyvinyl chloride in the manufacture of a wide variety of consumer goods, such as building products, car products, clothing, food packaging, children's products (but not in toys intended for mouthing), and in medical devices made of polyvinyl chloride. The public can be exposed to DEHP by ingesting food, drink or dust that has been in contact with DEHP-containing materials, by inhaling contaminated air or dust, or by undergoing a medical procedure that uses polyvinyl chloride medical tubing or storage bags. It is estimated that the general population of the United States is exposed to DEHP levels ranging from 1 to 30 microg/kg bw/day (micrograms per kilogram body weight per day). The results of this DEHP update evaluation are published in an NTP-CERHR monograph that includes: (1) the NTP Brief, (2) the Expert Panel Update on the Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of DEHP, and (3) public comments on the expert panel report. The NTP reached the following conclusions on the possible effects of exposure to DEHP on human development and reproduction. Note that the possible levels of concern, from lowest to highest, are negligible concern, minimal concern, some concern, concern, and serious concern. There is serious concern that certain intensive medical treatments of male infants may result in DEHP exposure levels that adversely affect development of the male reproductive tract. DEHP exposure from medical procedures in infants was estimated to be as high as 6000 microg/kg bw/day. There is concern for adverse effects on development of the reproductive tract in male offspring of pregnant and breast feeding women undergoing certain medical procedures that may result in exposure to high levels of DEHP. There is concern for effects of DEHP exposure on development of the male reproductive tract for infants less than one year old. Diet, mouthing of DEHP-containing objects, and certain medical treatments may lead to DEHP exposures that are higher than those experienced by the general population. There is some concern for effects of DEHP exposure on development of the reproductive tract of male children older than one year. As in infants, exposures of children to DEHP may be higher than in the general population. There is some concern for adverse effects of DEHP exposure on development of the male reproductive tract in male offspring of pregnant women not medically exposed to DEHP. Although DEHP exposures are assumed to be the same as for the general population, the developing male reproductive tract is sensitive to the adverse effects of DEHP. There is minimal concern for reproductive toxicity in adults exposed to DEHP at 1 - 30 microg/kg bw/day. This level of concern is not altered for adults medically exposed to DEHP. NTP will transmit the NTP-CERHR Monograph on DEHP to federal and state agencies, interested parties, and the public and it will be available in electronic PDF format on the CERHR web site http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov and in printed text or CD-ROM from the CERHR.
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Nabae K, Doi Y, Takahashi S, Ichihara T, Toda C, Ueda K, Okamoto Y, Kojima N, Tamano S, Shirai T. Toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) under conditions of renal dysfunction induced with folic acid in rats: Enhancement of male reproductive toxicity of DEHP is associated with an increase of the mono-derivative. Reprod Toxicol 2006; 22:411-7. [PMID: 16952438 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2006.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2006] [Revised: 05/15/2006] [Accepted: 07/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
F344 male rats were given five consecutive weekly subcutaneous injections of folic acid for induction of chronic renal dysfunction and then di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) or di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) in the diet at a concentration of 0, 6000 or 25,000 ppm for 4 weeks in order to investigate whether male reproductive toxicity of the two chemicals might be enhanced under conditions of renal disease. Control animals also received DEHP or DEHA in the same manner but without folic acid pretreatment. Decreased testicular weights, seminiferous atrophy with vacuolization of sertoli cells and diminished sperm counts were more prominent in rats given folic acid and then 25,000 ppm DEHP as compared to those exposed to DEHP alone. No such reproductive toxicity was evident in rats given 6000 ppm DEHP or either dose of DEHA. An increased concentration of the mono-derivative of DEHP (mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, MEHP) in the blood, testis and urine was considered relevant to the enhanced reproductive toxicity observed with DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Nabae
- DIMS Institute of Medical Science Inc., 64 Goura, Nishiazai, Azai-cho, Ichinomiya 491-0113, Japan.
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Stroheker T, Regnier JF, Lassurguere J, Chagnon MC. Effect of in utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate: distribution in the rat fetus and testosterone production by rat fetal testis in culture. Food Chem Toxicol 2006; 44:2064-9. [PMID: 16979278 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2006.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2005] [Revised: 05/22/2006] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
DEHP is known to cause reproductive toxicity in rats, particularly during the neonatal period. Pregnant and brood rats were treated by gavage with 750 mg/kgb.w./day DEHP starting on GD14 within PND4. Two hours after (14)C-DEHP administration on GD15, GD18, GD21 and PND4, the radioactivity content was measured in the dams blood and in the liver, gonads and carcass of the offspring. The radioactivity concentration recovered in the fetuses was one or two order of magnitude lower than the concentration found in the dam plasma. A low proportion of radioactivity was present in fetal gonads, ca. 2%, 5% and 3.6% on GD18, GD21 and PND4, respectively. The effect on testosterone production of DEHP and its metabolites (MEHP, metabolites VI and IX) was assessed in fetal testis cultures using a dose-range which included the maximal exposure observed in vivo. None of the compounds affected testosterone production. Thus, DEHP and/or its metabolites appear to cross the placental barrier, reach the fetal gonads. In vitro, neither DEHP nor its main metabolites decreased the testosterone production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stroheker
- UMR 1234 de Toxicologie Alimentaire, ENSBANA, 1 esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France
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Andrade AJM, Grande SW, Talsness CE, Grote K, Chahoud I. A dose-response study following in utero and lactational exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP): non-monotonic dose-response and low dose effects on rat brain aromatase activity. Toxicology 2006; 227:185-92. [PMID: 16949715 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2006] [Revised: 07/14/2006] [Accepted: 07/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP) is a commonly used plasticizer which can act as an endocrine disruptor. It has been suggested that in addition to its antiandrogenic effects, DEHP may interfere with estrogen metabolism through suppression of aromatase enzyme activity. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of testosterone to estradiol and plays a critical role in brain sexual differentiation. We investigated the effects of two wide ranges of DEHP doses on brain aromatase activity of male and female rat offspring. Wistar rat dams were treated daily with DEHP and peanut oil (control) by gavage from gestation day 6 to lactation day 21 at doses of 0.015, 0.045, 0.135, 0.405 and 1.215mgDEHP/kgbodyweight(bw)/day (low doses) and at 5, 15, 45, 135 and 405mgDEHP/kgbw/day (high doses). Aromatase activity was determined in hypothalamic/preoptic area (HPOA) brain sections from male and female pups on postnatal days (PNDs) 1 and 22. In males on PND 1, aromatase activity was inhibited at low doses and increased at high doses resulting in a non-monotonic dose-response profile which resembled a J-shaped curve. Inhibition was statistically significant at 0.135 and 0.405mgDEHP/kg/day, while increased activity was observed at 15, 45 and 405mg/kg/day. In contrast to findings on PND 1, aromatase activity at weaning (PND 22) was more affected in females than in males. An increase in aromatase activity was observed at only one dose in males (0.405mg/kg/day) while an increase in activity was observed at all doses in the females except for 0.045 and 5mgDEHP/kg/day. Overall, these results indicate that males and females respond differently to DEHP not only in regard to the age at which effects are manifested, but also in the shape of the dose-response curve. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report biological effects of DEHP at doses that overlap with the estimated exposure of the general human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson J M Andrade
- Charité University Medical School Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Toxicology, Garystrasse 5, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Calafat AM, Brock JW, Silva MJ, Gray LE, Reidy JA, Barr DB, Needham LL. Urinary and amniotic fluid levels of phthalate monoesters in rats after the oral administration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-n-butyl phthalate. Toxicology 2006; 217:22-30. [PMID: 16171919 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2005.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2005] [Revised: 08/09/2005] [Accepted: 08/15/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Two studies were designed to examine amniotic fluid and maternal urine concentrations of the di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolite mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and the di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) metabolite monobutyl phthalate (MBP) after administration of DEHP and DBP during pregnancy. In the first study, pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were administered 0, 11, 33, 100, or 300 mg DEHP/kg/day by oral gavage starting on gestational day (GD) 7. In the second study, DBP was administered by oral gavage to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats at doses of 0, 100, or 250 mg/kg/day starting on GD 13. Maternal urine and amniotic fluid were collected and analyzed to determine the free and glucuronidated levels of MEHP and MBP. In urine, MEHP and MBP were mostly glucuronidated. By contrast, free MEHP and free MBP predominated in amniotic fluid. Statistically significant correlations were found between maternal DEHP dose and total maternal urinary MEHP (p=0.0117), and between maternal DEHP dose and total amniotic fluid MEHP levels (p=0.0021). Total maternal urinary MEHP and total amniotic fluid MEHP levels were correlated (Pearson correlation coefficient=0.968). Statistically significant differences were found in amniotic MBP levels between animals within the same DBP dose treatment group (p<0.0001) and between animals in different dose treatment groups (p<0.0001). Amniotic fluid MBP levels increased with increasing DBP doses, and high variability in maternal urinary levels of MBP between rats was observed. Although no firm conclusions could be drawn from the urinary MBP data, the MEHP results suggest that maternal urinary MEHP levels may be useful surrogate markers for fetal exposure to DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy., NE, Mailstop F17, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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Koch HM, Bolt HM, Preuss R, Eckstein R, Weisbach V, Angerer J. Intravenous exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP): metabolites of DEHP in urine after a voluntary platelet donation. Arch Toxicol 2005; 79:689-93. [PMID: 16059725 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-005-0004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2005] [Accepted: 05/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study we investigated human metabolism and excretion of DEHP after intravenous exposure. For this purpose we determined the five major DEHP metabolites in urine samples of a volunteer before and after a platelet donation (dual-needle technique). Plateletpheresis procedures are known to cause a significant DEHP exposure. We observed a sharp increase in urinary DEHP metabolite concentrations after the procedure. Maximum concentrations of 5OH-MEHP, 5oxo-MEHP, 5cx-MEPP and MEHP observed 4 h after the procedure were 822, 729, 577 and 388 microg/l respectively. 2cx-MMHP was excreted at highest concentrations after 8 h (201 microg/l). Due to longer elimination half-times, 5cx-MEPP and 2cx-MMHP were the major metabolites excreted in urine 24 h after the exposure. The 24-h-cumulative excretion of 363 microg 5cx-MEPP, 353 microg 5OH-MEHP, 309 microg 5oxo-MEHP, 178 microg MEHP and 133 microg 2cx-MMHP indicates an absolute exposure of our volunteer of about 2.6 mg DEHP. Related to the body weight this equals a dose of 31.6 microg/kg body weight/day. This indicates that current risk or preventive limit values for DEHP such as the RfD of the US EPA (20 microg/kg/day) and the TDI of the European Union (20-48 microg/kg/day) can be exceeded on the day of the plateletpheresis. The amount of the dose excreted in urine, distribution of the metabolites in urine and all other elimination characteristics after intravenous DEHP exposure are comparable to oral exposure. There are no indications that toxicokinetic behaviour and the toxicity of DEHP are fundamentally different after the two routes of exposure. Therefore, toxicological endpoints observed for DEHP after oral application should also be considered relevant for medical procedures causing intravenous DEHP exposure, like apheresis procedures. Especially women in their reproductive age need to be protected from DEHP exposures exceeding the above mentioned preventive limit values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger M Koch
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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Buchta C, Bittner C, Heinzl H, Höcker P, Macher M, Mayerhofer M, Schmid R, Seger C, Dettke M. Transfusion-related exposure to the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in patients receiving plateletpheresis concentrates. Transfusion 2005; 45:798-802. [PMID: 15847671 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.04380.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer that can leach from medical devices including storage bags for plateletpheresis concentrates (PCs). In this study, the DEHP exposure to patients receiving PCs was determined and several variables were evaluated to reduce DEHP load to PC recipients. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS In 12 patients, serum DEHP was assessed before and after PC transfusion. For in vitro investigations, PCs were produced either with donor plasma or with 65 percent additive solution (AS; T-Sol) and stored for 5 days. Washing of PCs was performed according to AABB standards. DEHP levels were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS Transfusion of PCs led to a significant increase in serum DEHP. DEHP levels in the PCs continuously increased during storage, although the accumulation of DEHP was less in PCs stored in the AS, T-Sol, than when stored in plasma. Storage-related accumulation of DEHP contributed to a major part of the total DEHP load in PCs stored for 5 days. Washing of PCs led to a reduction of DEHP load. CONCLUSION Recipients of PCs are exposed to DEHP, although the total amount represents only a small percentage of the defined tolerable intake. Reduction of storage time, the storage of PC in T-Sol, or the exchange of the storage medium before transfusion are practicable means to reduce the DEHP load in PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Buchta
- Department of Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine, the Institute for Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Kim SC, Yoon HJ, Lee JW, Yu J, Park ES, Chi SC. Investigation of the release behavior of DEHP from infusion sets by paclitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles. Int J Pharm 2005; 293:303-10. [PMID: 15778068 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2004] [Accepted: 01/07/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The current clinical formulation of paclitaxel (Taxol) contains 1:1 blend of Cremophor EL (polyethoxylated castor oil) and dehydrated ethanol. Cremophor EL and dehydrated ethanol are well known to leach di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) infusion bags and PVC administration sets. DEHP is a possible hepatotoxin, carcinogen, teratogen and mutagen. Long-term exposure to DEHP may cause health risks. As an alternative formulation for paclitaxel, paclitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles (PLPM), made of monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(d,l-lactide) (mPEG-PDLLA) diblock copolymer, has demonstrated clear advantages over Taxol in pharmacokinetics and therapeutic index. Paclitaxel in either PLPM or Taxol formulations, diluted in 0.9% sodium chloride injection, was stable in the PVC infusion bags. The PLPM formulation significantly reduced the amount of DEHP extracted from PVC infusion bags and PVC administration sets. For PLPM diluted in 0.9% sodium chloride injection, the total amount of DEHP delivered over the simulated infusion period was 0.7 mg for 3h and 2.0 mg for 24 h, which was less than 2.9% of the DEHP extracted by Taxol. These results confirmed that there is negligible risk of DEHP exposure from diluted PLPM i.v. infusion using PVC infusion bags and PVC administration sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Chul Kim
- Samyang Research Co., 9520 South State Street, Sandy, UT 84070, USA.
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Koch HM, Bolt HM, Preuss R, Angerer J. New metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in human urine and serum after single oral doses of deuterium-labelled DEHP. Arch Toxicol 2005; 79:367-76. [PMID: 15700144 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-004-0642-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 361] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in humans was studied after three doses of 0.35 mg (4.7 microg/kg), 2.15 mg (28.7 microg/kg) and 48.5 mg (650 microg/kg) of D4-ring-labelled DEHP were administered orally to a male volunteer. Two new metabolites, mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl)phthalate (5cx-MEPP) and mono[2-(carboxymethyl)hexyl]phthalate (2cx-MMHP) were monitored for 44 h in urine and for 8 h in serum for the high-dose case, in addition to the three metabolites previously analysed: mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl)phthalate (5OH-MEHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl)phthalate (5oxo-MEHP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP). For the medium- and low-dose cases, 24 h urine samples were analysed. Up to 12 h after the dose, 5OH-MEHP was the major urinary metabolite, after 12 h it was 5cx-MEPP, and after 24 h it was 2cx-MMHP. The elimination half-lives of 5cx-MEHP and 2cx-MMHP were between 15 and 24 h. After 24 h 67.0% (range: 65.8-70.5%) of the DEHP dose was excreted in urine, comprising 5OH-MEHP (23.3%), 5cx-MEPP (18.5%), 5oxo-MEHP (15.0%), MEHP (5.9%) and 2cx-MMHP (4.2%). An additional 3.8% of the DEHP dose was excreted on the second day, comprising 2cx-MMHP (1.6%), 5cx-MEPP (1.2%), 5OH-MEHP (0.6%) and 5oxo-MEHP (0.4%). In total about 75% of the administered DEHP dose was excreted in urine after two days. Therefore, in contrast to previous studies, most of the orally administered DEHP is systemically absorbed and excreted in urine. No dose dependency in metabolism and excretion was observed. The secondary metabolites of DEHP are superior biomonitoring markers compared to any other parameters, such as MEHP in urine or blood. 5OH-MEHP and 5oxo-MEHP in urine reflect short-term and 5cx-MEHP and 2cx-MMHP long-term exposure. All secondary metabolites are unsusceptible to contamination. Furthermore, there are strong hints that the secondary oxidised DEHP metabolites-not DEHP or MEHP-are the ultimate developmental toxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger M Koch
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
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Abstract
PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) is a lipid-soluble plasticizer commonly used in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride- (PVC-) based plastics. Previous studies have documented the leaching of DEHP from PVC-based containers and extension sets during the IV administration of paclitaxel. DESIGN Study of the leaching of DEHP from infusion bags and peritoneal dialysis solution transfer sets and clinical study of DEHP was proposed. SETTING The experiments were performed in a laboratory with plastic ware normally used for intraperitoneal chemotherapy delivery. SAMPLE Samples were taken from fluids that had been in contact with the plastic ware. Also, blood, peritoneal fluid, and urine were collected from a patient. METHODS In a controlled laboratory environment, the authors used an established high-performance liquid chromatography assay to determine the rate and extent of DEHP leaching from infusion bags and in the solution transfer set used for early postoperative intraperitoneal chemotherapy (EPIC) administration of paclitaxel. Paclitaxel was tested at a concentration of 40 mg/L to simulate the median dose used for EPIC. In a single patient receiving 34 mg paclitaxel in 1 liter of 1.5% dextrose peritoneal dialysis solution (Dianeal), the presence and concentration of DEHP in samples of peritoneal fluid and urine were determined during the first 24-hour EPIC administration. MAIN RESEARCH VARIABLES DEHP levels in fluids exposed to plastic ware and in the patients blood, peritoneal fluid, and urine were determined. FINDINGS The in vitro studies showed that a solution of 40 mg paclitaxel dissolved in a 1 liter bag of Dianeal resulted in the extraction of approximately 26 mg DEHP over 24 hours. Approximately 2 mg DEHP was leached during the first hour and approximately 1 mg per hour over the following 23 hours. Equivalent results were obtained when 20 mg paclitaxel was dissolved in a 500 ml bag of 6% hetastarch (Hespan) with a leaching of approximately 13 mg DEHP in 24 hours. Using the same paclitaxel concentration, the chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis solution transfer tubing with a total capacity of 10 ml produced approximately 2 mg DEHP over 24 hours, of which approximately 0.5 mg was produced during the first four hours. Samples from a single patient showed that immediately prior to administration, a 1 liter bag of Dianeal containing 34 mg paclitaxel had about 3.3 mg DEHP. Approximately 3% (110 mcg) of unchanged DEHP was recovered from the peritoneal fluid at 24 hours. Total DEHP excreted in urine over the 24-hour period was approximately 900 mcg (27%). CONCLUSION This study showed that the carcinogen DEHP is leached after preparation of paclitaxel from PVC-based containers and DEHP constantly accumulates in the solution transfer tubing. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING Unless precautionary steps are taken, DEHP can be transferred to patients receiving intraperitoneal paclitaxel. Steps to minimize patient exposure to DEHP during EPIC with paclitaxel are necessary. In the ideal situation, no DEHP-containing plastic should be used for chemotherapy delivery. If that is not possible, (a) paclitaxel solution should be administered as soon as possible after preparation by the pharmacy, (b) infusion should proceed as rapidly as possible via the Tenckhoff catheter, and (c) the Tenckhoff catheter and extension tubing should be cleared by draining ascites fluid through these tubes prior to subsequent intraperitoneal infusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oswald A Stuart
- Washington Cancer Institute, Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC, USA.
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Ito Y, Yokota H, Wang R, Yamanoshita O, Ichihara G, Wang H, Kurata Y, Takagi K, Nakajima T. Species differences in the metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in several organs of mice, rats, and marmosets. Arch Toxicol 2004; 79:147-54. [PMID: 15798888 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-004-0615-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2004] [Accepted: 09/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To clarify species differences in the metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) we measured the activity of four DEHP-metabolizing enzymes (lipase, UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UGT), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH)) in several organs (the liver, lungs, kidneys, and small intestine) of mice (CD-1), rats (Sprague-Dawley), and marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Lipase activity, measured by the rate of formation of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) from DEHP, differed by 27- to 357-fold among species; the activity was highest in the small intestines of mice and lowest in the lungs of marmosets. This might be because of the significant differences between Vmax/Km values of lipase for DEHP among the species. UGT activity for MEHP in the liver microsomes was highest in mice, followed by rats and marmosets. These differences, however, were only marginal compared with those for lipase activity. ADH and ALDH activity also differed among species; the activity of the former in the livers of marmosets was 1.6-3.9 times greater than in those of rats or mice; the activity of the latter was higher in rats and marmosets (2-14 times) than in mice. These results were quite different from those for lipase or UGT activity. Because MEHP is considered to be the more potent ligand to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha involved in different toxic processes, a possibly major difference in MEHP-formation capacity could be also considered on extrapolation from rodents to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Ito
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 466-8550, Nagoya, Japan
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Koch HM, Drexler H, Angerer J. Internal exposure of nursery-school children and their parents and teachers to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004; 207:15-22. [PMID: 14762970 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4639-00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is the main plasticizer for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products. It has become widely spread in our environment and among people. DEHP is suspected to be responsible for endocrine-disruptor-like effects in mankind. Children are probably most susceptible to these endocrine effects. In this study we determined the internal exposure of nursery school children (aged 2-6 years) to DEHP and compared it to their parents' and teachers' exposure. The DEHP-metabolites mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl)phthalate (5OH-MEHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-oxo-hexyl)phthalate (5oxo-MEHP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP) were determined in first morning urine. The sum of the three DEHP metabolites in children's and in adults' urine was 90.0 and 59.1 micrograms/l respectively (median values; p = 0.074). Concentrations of the secondary metabolites 5OH-MEHP (median: 49.6 vs. 32.1 micrograms/l; p = 0.038) and 5oxo-MEHP (median: 33.8 vs. 19.6 micrograms/l; p = 0.015) were significantly higher in children than in adults. MEHP concentrations were low both in adults and children (median: 6.6 micrograms/l vs. 9.0 micrograms/l). Creatinine adjusted values should more accurately reflect the dose taken up with respect to body weight when comparing children with adults. Total creatinine adjusted DEHP metabolites in urine were significantly higher in children than in adults (median values: 98.8 vs. 50.9 micrograms/g creatinine; p < 0.0001). This also applied to the concentrations of both secondary metabolites 5OH-MEHP (55.8 vs. 28.1 micrograms/g creatinine; p < 0.0001) and 5oxo-MEHP (38.3 vs. 17.2 micrograms/g creatinine; p < 0.0001). Creatinine corrected concentrations for the monoester MEHP in children and adults were very similar (8.7 vs. 8.6 micrograms/g creatinine; p = 0.908). Based on the sum of the three determined metabolites we estimated the DEHP dose (in microgram/kg body-weight) taken up by children to be about twice as high as the dose taken up by adults. Routes of the ubiquitous exposure to DEHP remain indistinct. In children's urine the mean relative ratios of MEHP to 5OH-MEHP to 5oxo-MEHP were 1 to 7.1 to 4.9, in adults they were 1 to 3.4 to 2.1. This might indicate an enhanced oxidative metabolism in children. To date no information on the biological activity and toxicity of oxidative metabolites of DEHP is available. Since these are the major metabolites of DEHP toxicological data on these metabolites is urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger M Koch
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstr. 25/29, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
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40
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Haishima Y, Matsuda R, Hayashi Y, Hasegawa C, Yagami T, Tsuchiya T. Risk assessment of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate released from PVC blood circuits during hemodialysis and pump–oxygenation therapy. Int J Pharm 2004; 274:119-29. [PMID: 15072788 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2004.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2003] [Revised: 12/14/2003] [Accepted: 01/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study deals with in vitro investigation of the release of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) during hemodialysis and pump-oxygenation therapy using medical grade PVC tubing. High resolution GC-MS analysis showed that the release of DEHP was time-dependently increased by circulation of bovine blood into a major system for the hemodialysis that is used in Japan, and the amount of DEHP released into the blood had reached 7.3 mg by 4 h of circulation. No significant difference was observed in the release patterns of DEHP under the conditions with and without fluid removal treatment during hemodialysis, indicating that the treatment seems not to be effective for eliminating DEHP from the blood through the hemodialysis membrane. Mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP) analysis revealed that a small amount of DEHP (3-4%) was converted to MEHP by hydrolysis during the circulation of blood. A considerable amount of DEHP was also released from the PVC circuit mimicking the pump-oxygenation system, and 7.5-12.1 mg of DEHP had migrated into bovine blood from the circuit by 6 h. It was noticed, however, that the release was obviously suppressed by covalently coating the inner surface of the PVC tubing with heparin, though this effect was not observed with ionic bond type-heparin coating. Covalent bond type-heparin coating of PVC tubing seems to offer the advantage of decreasing the amount of DEHP exposure to patients during treatment using a PVC circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Haishima
- Division of Medical Devices, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan.
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Ljungvall K, Tienpont B, David F, Magnusson U, Törneke K. Kinetics of orally administered di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its metabolite, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, in male pigs. Arch Toxicol 2004; 78:384-9. [PMID: 15022035 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-004-0558-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2003] [Accepted: 02/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used as a plastic softener in the polymer industry and is widespread in medical devices. DEHP has been incriminated as an endocrine-disrupting chemical, and the effects of DEHP in various species have included disturbances in the reproductive system. The effects of the chemical have varied, depending upon exposure routes and species. This study was performed in order to characterise the kinetics of DEHP and its metabolite mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) in the young male pig, an omnivore model-species for research in reproductive toxicology. Eight pigs were given 1000 mg DEHP/kg bodyweight by oral gavage. The concentrations of DEHP and MEHP were then measured in the plasma and tissues of the pigs at different time points after administration. There was no consistent rise above contamination levels of concentrations of DEHP in the plasma of the pigs. However, the metabolite MEHP reached the systemic blood circulation. The half-life of MEHP in the systemic blood circulation was calculated to be 6.3 h. Absorption from the intestine was biphasic in six of the eight pigs and the mono-exponential elimination-phase started 16 h after the after the administration of DEHP. To conclude, MEHP consistently reaches the systemic circulation in the pig when DEHP is administered orally. The kinetic pattern of the parent substance on the other hand is more difficult to characterise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Ljungvall
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Centre for Reproductive Biology in Uppsala, Box 7039, 750 07.
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Abstract
Subcellular distribution of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in the testis was studied by single oral administration of [3,4,5,6-(3)H]-phthalic acid di-(2-ethylhexyl) ester (DEHP-3H) or phthalic acid di-(2-ethyl[1-(3)H]hexyl) ester (3H-DEHP) to 8-week-old male rats. Autoradiographs and electron microscopic autoradiographs were prepared from the testis, liver and kidney at 6 and 24 hr after administration and distribution of radioactive materials in the tissues were observed. In the autoradiographic specimen at 6 hr after administration of DEHP 3H-labeled at phthalic acid moiety (DEHP-3H), many grains were observed in the testis, mainly at the basal area of seminiferous tubules at the stages IX to I of the spermatogenic cycle. Electron microscopic autoradiographs taken at the same time revealed that localization of grains were in the smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria of Sertoli cells. A few grains were also present at the Golgi apparatus and lysosome of Sertoli cells, and at the interfaces between the Sertoli cells or between Sertoli cells and spermatocytes, and in the cytoplasm of spermatocytes. Autoradiographs of the liver revealed grains in the centrilobular hepatocytes, localized at mitochondria, rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum and peroxisomes. In the kidney, the radioactivity was localized at the brush border of the tubular cells in the pars recta of proximal tubules. In the 24-hr specimen, the grain density in the seminiferous tubules obviously decreased. On the other hand, by autoradiography with DEHP 3H-labeled at the alcohol (3H-DEHP), only a few grains were observed in autoradiographs of the testes at 6 hr after administration. No grains were noted in autoradiographs of the liver and kidney with 3H-DEHP. The results showed that the phthalic acid ester was splitted rapidly in the body and only the phthalic acid moiety distributed into the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ono
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center, 729-5 Ochiai, Hadano, Kanagawa 257-8523, Japan
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David RM. Commentary regarding the article by Koch et al.: An estimation of the daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and other phthalates in the general population. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health, 206, 77 – 83 (2003). Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004; 207:75-6; author reply 77-8. [PMID: 14762977 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4639-00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hanawa T, Endoh N, Kazuno F, Suzuki M, Kobayashi D, Tanaka M, Kawano K, Morimoto Y, Nakajima S, Oguchi T. Investigation of the release behavior of diethylhexyl phthalate from polyvinyl chloride tubing for intravenous administration based on HCO60. Int J Pharm 2003; 267:141-9. [PMID: 14602392 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2003.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The release behavior of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing, which composes materials in an intravenous administration set (IAS), was investigated using polyoxyethylated hydrogenated castor oil (HCO60) in physiological saline (PS), distilled water for injection (DWI), and ribose, fructose, and glucose (TZ) solutions. The amount of DEHP released increased with increasing HCO60 concentration, and the cumulative amount of DEHP released after 4h increased in the following order: 50% TZ<DWI=PS. At HCO60 levels above and below critical micelle concentration, no significant increase in the amount of DEHP released was observed; the release of DEHP appeared due to molecular interactions between DEHP and HCO60 molecules rather than the solubilization of DEHP into micelles. The release behavior of DEHP was affected by the addition of sugars. The amount of DEHP released decreased with an increase in the mean numbers of equatorial OH groups n(e-OH) per molecule in the following order: glucose [n(e-OH);4.6]<fructose(3.0)<ribose(2.1). Molecular mobility of HCO60 was assumed to be restricted by interaction with the sugar molecule and/or the extent of microscopic viscosity. Interaction of HCO60 with the sugar, the difference in the mode, and/or the extent of molecular interaction between sugar and HCO60 appeared to induce the difference in release behavior, while the increase in the number of water molecules needed to hydrate sugar molecules seemed to decrease the amount of free water, thus allowing microscopic viscosity to increase and to restrict the mobility of HCO60. These results suggest that the release of DEHP from PVC tubing is closely associated with the interaction of DEHP with HCO60, and related to the molecular mobility of HCO60 in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehisa Hanawa
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital, University of Yamanashi, 1110 Shimokato, Tamaho, Yamanashi, 409-3898, Japan.
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Latini G, De Felice C, Presta G, Del Vecchio A, Paris I, Ruggieri F, Mazzeo P. In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111:1783-5. [PMID: 14594632 PMCID: PMC1241724 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.6202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 357] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), the most commonly used plasticizer in flexible polyvinylchloride formulations, is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. To date, no information exists on the potential health hazards from exposure to DEHP and/or its main metabolite, mono-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), in high-risk conditions, such as pregnancy and during the neonatal period. The aim of this study was to evaluate prenatal exposure to DEHP and/or MEHP and its possible biologic effects. We measured serum DEHP and MEHP concentrations in the cord blood of 84 consecutive newborns by high-performance liquid chromatography. Relationships between DEHP/MEHP and infant characteristics were tested using Fisher's exact test, unpaired t-tests, and univariate linear regression analyses, and significant differences on univariate analysis were evaluated using multiple logistic regression analysis. We found detectable cord blood DEHP and/or MEHP concentrations in 88.1% of the samples. Either DEHP or MEHP was present in 65 of 84 (77.4%) of the examined samples. Mean concentrations of DEHP and MEHP were 1.19 +/- 1.15 microg/mL [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.93-1.44, range = 0-4.71] and 0.52 +/- 0.61 microg/mL (95% CI, 0.39-0.66, range = 0-2.94), respectively. MEHP-positive newborns showed a significantly lower gestational age compared with MEHP-negative infants (p = 0.033). Logistic regression analysis results indicated a positive correlation between absence of MEHP in cord blood and gestational age at delivery (odds ratio = 1.50, 95% CI, 1.013-2.21; p = 0.043). These findings confirm that human exposure to DEHP can begin in utero and suggest that phthalate exposure is significantly associated with a shorter pregnancy duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Latini
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Division of Paediatrics, Perrino Hospital, Brindisi, Italy.
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Koch HM, Bolt HM, Angerer J. Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in human urine and serum after a single oral dose of deuterium-labelled DEHP. Arch Toxicol 2003; 78:123-30. [PMID: 14576974 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-003-0522-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2003] [Accepted: 09/19/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Human metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) was studied after a single oral dose of 48.1 mg to a male volunteer. To avoid interference by background exposure the D4-ring-labelled DEHP analogue was dosed. Excretion of three metabolites, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl)phthalate (5OH-MEHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl)phthalate (5oxo-MEHP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), was monitored for 44 h in urine and for 8 h in serum. Peak concentrations of all metabolites were found in serum after 2 h and in urine after 2 h (MEHP) and after 4 h (5OH-MEHP and 5oxo-MEHP). While the major metabolite in serum was MEHP, the major metabolite in urine was 5OH-MEHP, followed by 5oxo-MEHP and MEHP. Excretion in urine followed a multi-phase elimination model. After an absorption and distribution phase of 4 to 8 h, half-life times of excretion in the first elimination phase were approximately 2 h with slightly higher half-life times for 5OH- and 5oxo-MEHP. Half-life times in the second phase-beginning 14 to 18 h post dose-were 5 h for MEHP and 10 h for 5OH-MEHP and 5oxo-MEHP. In the time window 36 to 44 h, no decrease in excreted concentrations of 5OH- and 5oxo-MEHP was observed. In the first elimination phase (8 to 14 h post dose), mean excretion ratios of MEHP to 5oxo-MEHP and MEHP to 5OH-MEHP were 1 to 1.8 and 1 to 3.1. In the second elimination phase up to 24 h post dose mean excretion ratios of MEHP to 5oxo-MEHP to 5OH-MEHP were 1 to 5.0 to 9.3. The excretion ratio of 5OH-MEHP to 5oxo-MEHP remained constant through time at 1.7 in the mean. After 44 h, 47% of the DEHP dose was excreted in urine, comprising MEHP (7.3%), 5OH-MEHP (24.7%) and 5oxo-MEHP (14.9%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger M Koch
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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Kaulen H. [Absorption of plasticizer probably higher than expected]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2003; 128:1994. [PMID: 14565205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
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Inoue K, Higuchi T, Okada F, Iguchi H, Yoshimura Y, Sato A, Nakazawa H. The validation of column-switching LC/MS as a high-throughput approach for direct analysis of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate released from PVC medical devices in intravenous solution. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2003; 31:1145-52. [PMID: 12667930 DOI: 10.1016/s0731-7085(03)00019-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Health Canada reported recently that medical devices containing di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) should not be used in the clinical treatment of infants, young boys, pregnant women, and nursing mothers. The risk assessment of DEHP released from PVC medical devices is an important issue for hospitalized patients. In this study, a simple, accurate, low-contamination and high-throughput analytical technique for the determination of DEHP in intravenous (IV) solution was developed using column-switching liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) with an extraction mini-column. The sample preparation for on-line extraction involved simply mixing IV solution with internal standard as DEHP-d(4) in LC glass vials. The IV fat emulsion drug sample cannot be analyzed directly, hence this sample spiked with DEHP-d(4) solution was extracted by hexane and measured by column-switching LC/MS yielding an average recovery of 92.2% (C.V.=7.8%, n=5). A linear response was found for a variety of drugs tested within the validated range of 0.1 or 0.5-10 microg/ml with correlation coefficients (r) greater than 0.99. These results suggest that this method can assay background exposure to DEHP released from PVC medical devices in the patients. The method was applied to various IV solution samples to establish the first screening method for DEHP released from medical devices with respect to their safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Inoue
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University, Ebara 2-4-41, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8501, Japan
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Kavlock R, Boekelheide K, Chapin R, Cunningham M, Faustman E, Foster P, Golub M, Henderson R, Hinberg I, Little R, Seed J, Shea K, Tabacova S, Tyl R, Williams P, Zacharewski T. NTP Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction: phthalates expert panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16:529-653. [PMID: 12406494 DOI: 10.1016/s0890-6238(02)00032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kavlock
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, USEPA, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Anderson WA, Castle L, Scotter MJ, Massey RC, Springall C. A biomarker approach to measuring human dietary exposure to certain phthalate diesters. Food Addit Contam 2001; 18:1068-74. [PMID: 11761117 DOI: 10.1080/02652030110050113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Three groups of eight volunteers were administered stable isotope-labelled phthalate diesters in a single dose and the amount of the corresponding phthalate monoesters excreted in the urine was measured. Amongst the phthalates administered were the symmetrical dibutyl-, di-2-ethyl- and diisooctyl- phthalates along with the unsymmetrical benzylbutylphthalate. The control group received no dose, the low dose group received 168-255 microg of each phthalate and the high dose group received 336 to 510 microg of each phthalate. The excreted phthalate monoesters were measured by LC-MS following hydrolysis of conjugates. The bulk of phthalate monoester was excreted in the first 24 hour period following the dose. For dibutylphthalate, 64% and 73% on a mole basis of the low, and high dose respectively was excreted as monobutylphthalate. For dioctylphthalate (sum of the 2-ethylhexyl and the isooctyl species) the yield was 14 and 12% of the low and high dose excreted as monooctylphthalate. For benzylbutylphthalate, 67% and 78% was eliminated as monobenzylphthalate and only 6% (measured for the high dose only) was eliminated as monobutylphthalate. These conversion factors can be used in future studies to assess exposure to phthalate esters via measuring urinary levels of the monoester metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Anderson
- Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, UK
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