Dynamic visualization of local protein synthesis in hippocampal neurons

A Ca2+-Dependent Switch Activates Axonal Casein Kinase 2α Translation and Drives G3BP1 Granule Disassembly for Axon Regeneration

The main limitation on axon regeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the slow rate of regrowth. We recently reported that nerve regeneration can be accelerated by axonal G3BP1 granule disassembly, releasing axonal mRNAs for local translation to support axon growth. Here, we show that G3BP1 phosphorylation by casein kinase 2α (CK2α) triggers G3BP1 granule disassembly in injured axons. CK2α activity is temporally and spatially regulated by local translation of Csnk2a1 mRNA in axons after injury, but this requires local translation of mTor mRNA and buffering of the elevated axonal Ca²⁺ that occurs after axotomy. CK2α's appearance in axons after PNS nerve injury correlates with disassembly of axonal G3BP1 granules as well as increased phospho-G3BP1 and axon growth, although depletion of Csnk2a1 mRNA from PNS axons decreases regeneration and increases G3BP1 granules. Phosphomimetic G3BP1 shows remarkably decreased RNA binding in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons compared with wild-type and non-phosphorylatable G3BP1; combined with other studies, this suggests that CK2α-dependent G3BP1 phosphorylation on Ser 149 after axotomy releases axonal mRNAs for translation. Translation of axonal mRNAs encoding some injury-associated proteins is known to be increased with Ca²⁺ elevations, and using a dual fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) reporter assay for axonal translation, we see that translational specificity switches from injury-associated protein mRNA translation to CK2α translation with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ release versus cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ chelation. Our results point to axoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentrations as a determinant for the temporal specificity of sequential translational activation of different axonal mRNAs as severed axons transition from injury to regenerative growth.

BDNF signaling during the lifetime of dendritic spines

Dendritic spines are tiny membrane specialization forming the postsynaptic part of most excitatory synapses. They have been suggested to play a crucial role in regulating synaptic transmission during development and in adult learning processes. Changes in their number, size, and shape are correlated with processes of structural synaptic plasticity and learning and memory and also with neurodegenerative diseases, when spines are lost. Thus, their alterations can correlate with neuronal homeostasis, but also with dysfunction in several neurological disorders characterized by cognitive impairment. Therefore, it is important to understand how different stages in the life of a dendritic spine, including formation, maturation, and plasticity, are strictly regulated. In this context, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), belonging to the NGF-neurotrophin family, is among the most intensively investigated molecule. This review would like to report the current knowledge regarding the role of BDNF in regulating dendritic spine number, structure, and plasticity concentrating especially on its signaling via its two often functionally antagonistic receptors, TrkB and p75NTR. In addition, we point out a series of open points in which, while the role of BDNF signaling is extremely likely conclusive, evidence is still missing.

On-Site Ribosome Remodeling by Locally Synthesized Ribosomal Proteins in Axons

Ribosome assembly occurs mainly in the nucleolus, yet recent studies have revealed robust enrichment and translation of mRNAs encoding many ribosomal proteins (RPs) in axons, far away from neuronal cell bodies. Here, we report a physical and functional interaction between locally synthesized RPs and ribosomes in the axon. We show that axonal RP translation is regulated through a sequence motif, CUIC, that forms an RNA-loop structure in the region immediately upstream of the initiation codon. Using imaging and subcellular proteomics techniques, we show that RPs synthesized in axons join axonal ribosomes in a nucleolus-independent fashion. Inhibition of axonal CUIC-regulated RP translation decreases local translation activity and reduces axon branching in the developing brain, revealing the physiological relevance of axonal RP synthesis in vivo. These results suggest that axonal translation supplies cytoplasmic RPs to maintain/modify local ribosomal function far from the nucleolus in neurons.

Sam68 Enables Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor-Dependent LTD in Distal Dendritic Regions of CA1 Hippocampal Neurons

The transport and translation of dendritic mRNAs by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) allows for spatially restricted gene expression in neuronal processes. Although local translation in neuronal dendrites is now well documented, there is little evidence for corresponding effects on local synaptic function. Here, we report that the RBP Sam68 promotes the localization and translation of Arc mRNA preferentially in distal dendrites of rodent hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Consistent with Arc function in translation-dependent synaptic plasticity, we find that Sam68 knockout (KO) mice display impaired metabotropic glutamate-receptor-dependent long-term depression (mGluR-LTD) and impaired structural plasticity exclusively at distal Schaffer-collateral synapses. Moreover, by using quantitative proteomics, we find that the Sam68 interactome contains numerous regulators of mRNA translation and synaptic function. This work identifies an important player in Arc expression, provides a general framework for Sam68 regulation of protein synthesis, and uncovers a mechanism that enables the precise spatiotemporal expression of long-term plasticity throughout neurons.

LIMK, Cofilin 1 and actin dynamics involvement in fear memory processing

Long-term memory has been associated with morphological changes in the brain, which in turn tightly correlate with changes in synaptic efficacy. Such plasticity is proposed to rely on dendritic spines as a neuronal canvas on which these changes can occur. Given the key role of actin cytoskeleton dynamics in spine morphology, major regulating factors of this process such as Cofilin 1 (Cfl1) and LIM kinase (LIMK), an inhibitor of Cfl1 activity, are prime molecular targets that may regulate dendritic plasticity. Using a contextual fear conditioning paradigm in mice, we found that pharmacological induction of depolymerization of actin filaments through the inhibition of LIMK causes an impairment in memory reconsolidation, as well as in memory consolidation. On top of that, Cfl1 activity is inhibited and its mRNA is downregulated in CA1 neuropil after re-exposure to the training context. Moreover, by pharmacological disruption of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, the process of memory extinction can either be facilitated or impaired. Our results lead to a better understanding of the role of LIMK, Cfl1 and actin cytoskeleton dynamics in the morphological and functional changes underlying the synaptic plasticity of the memory trace.

Mechanisms that communicate features of neuronal activity to the genome

Stimulus-driven gene expression is a ubiquitous feature of biological systems, allowing cells and organisms to adapt their function in a stimulus-driven manner. Neurons exhibit complex and heterogeneous activity-dependent gene expression, but many of the canonical mechanisms that transduce electrical activity into gene regulation are promiscuous and convergent. We discuss literature that describes mechanisms that drive activity-dependent gene expression with a focus on those that allow the nucleus to decode complex stimulus-features into appropriate transcriptional programs.

Emerging Roles for 3' UTRs in Neurons

The 3′ untranslated regions (3′ UTRs) of mRNAs serve as hubs for post-transcriptional control as the targets of microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Sequences in 3′ UTRs confer alterations in mRNA stability, direct mRNA localization to subcellular regions, and impart translational control. Thousands of mRNAs are localized to subcellular compartments in neurons—including axons, dendrites, and synapses—where they are thought to undergo local translation. Despite an established role for 3′ UTR sequences in imparting mRNA localization in neurons, the specific RNA sequences and structural features at play remain poorly understood. The nervous system selectively expresses longer 3′ UTR isoforms via alternative polyadenylation (APA). The regulation of APA in neurons and the neuronal functions of longer 3′ UTR mRNA isoforms are starting to be uncovered. Surprising roles for 3′ UTRs are emerging beyond the regulation of protein synthesis and include roles as RBP delivery scaffolds and regulators of alternative splicing. Evidence is also emerging that 3′ UTRs can be cleaved, leading to stable, isolated 3′ UTR fragments which are of unknown function. Mutations in 3′ UTRs are implicated in several neurological disorders—more studies are needed to uncover how these mutations impact gene regulation and what is their relationship to disease severity.

The switch-like expression of heme-regulated kinase 1 mediates neuronal proteostasis following proteasome inhibition

We examined the feedback between the major protein degradation pathway, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), and protein synthesis in rat and mouse neurons. When protein degradation was inhibited, we observed a coordinate dramatic reduction in nascent protein synthesis in neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. The mechanism for translation inhibition involved the phosphorylation of eIF2α, surprisingly mediated by eIF2α kinase 1, or heme-regulated kinase inhibitor (HRI). Under basal conditions, neuronal expression of HRI is barely detectable. Following proteasome inhibition, HRI protein levels increase owing to stabilization of HRI and enhanced translation, likely via the increased availability of tRNAs for its rare codons. Once expressed, HRI is constitutively active in neurons because endogenous heme levels are so low; HRI activity results in eIF2α phosphorylation and the resulting inhibition of translation. These data demonstrate a novel role for neuronal HRI that senses and responds to compromised function of the proteasome to restore proteostasis.

Monosomes actively translate synaptic mRNAs in neuronal processes

To accommodate their complex morphology, neurons localize messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and ribosomes near synapses to produce proteins locally. However, a relative paucity of polysomes (considered the active sites of translation) detected in electron micrographs of neuronal processes has suggested a limited capacity for local protein synthesis. In this study, we used polysome profiling together with ribosome footprinting of microdissected rodent synaptic regions to reveal a surprisingly high number of dendritic and/or axonal transcripts preferentially associated with monosomes (single ribosomes). Furthermore, the neuronal monosomes were in the process of active protein synthesis. Most mRNAs showed a similar translational status in the cell bodies and neurites, but some transcripts exhibited differential ribosome occupancy in the compartments. Monosome-preferring transcripts often encoded high-abundance synaptic proteins. Thus, monosome translation contributes to the local neuronal proteome.

Proteome dynamics during homeostatic scaling in cultured neurons

Protein turnover, the net result of protein synthesis and degradation, enables cells to remodel their proteomes in response to internal and external cues. Previously, we analyzed protein turnover rates in cultured brain cells under basal neuronal activity and found that protein turnover is influenced by subcellular localization, protein function, complex association, cell type of origin, and by the cellular environment (Dörrbaum et al., 2018). Here, we advanced our experimental approach to quantify changes in protein synthesis and degradation, as well as the resulting changes in protein turnover or abundance in rat primary hippocampal cultures during homeostatic scaling. Our data demonstrate that a large fraction of the neuronal proteome shows changes in protein synthesis and/or degradation during homeostatic up- and down-scaling. More than half of the quantified synaptic proteins were regulated, including pre- as well as postsynaptic proteins with diverse molecular functions.

Bioorthogonal mRNA labeling at the poly(A) tail for imaging localization and dynamics in live zebrafish embryos

Live imaging of mRNA in cells and organisms is important for understanding the dynamic aspects underlying its function.

Live imaging of mRNA in cells and organisms is important for understanding the dynamic aspects underlying its function. Ideally, labeling of mRNA should not alter its structure or function, nor affect the biological system. However, most methods applied in vivo make use of genetically encoded tags and reporters that significantly enhance the size of the mRNA of interest. Alternately, we utilize the 3′ poly(A) tail as a non-coding repetitive hallmark to covalently label mRNAs via bioorthogonal chemistry with different fluorophores from a wide range of spectra without significantly changing the size. We demonstrate that the labeled mRNAs can be visualized in cells and zebrafish embryos, and that they are efficiently translated. Importantly, the labeled mRNAs acquired the proper subcellular localization in developing zebrafish embryos and their dynamics could be tracked in vivo.

Quantification of mRNA translation in live cells using single-molecule imaging

mRNA translation is a key step in gene expression. Proper regulation of translation efficiency ensures correct protein expression levels in the cell, which is essential to cell function. Different methods used to study translational control in the cell rely on population-based assays that do not provide information about translational heterogeneity between cells or between mRNAs of the same gene within a cell, and generally provide only a snapshot of translation. To study translational heterogeneity and measure translation dynamics, we have developed microscopy-based methods that enable visualization of translation of single mRNAs in live cells. These methods consist of a set of genetic tools, an imaging-based approach and sophisticated computational tools. Using the translation imaging method, one can investigate many new aspects of translation in single living cells, such as translation start-site selection, 3'-UTR (untranslated region) translation and translation-coupled mRNA decay. Here, we describe in detail how to perform such experiments, including reporter design, cell line generation, image acquisition and analysis. This protocol also provides a detailed description of the image analysis pipeline and computational modeling that will enable non-experts to correctly interpret fluorescence measurements. The protocol takes 2-4 d to complete (after cell lines expressing all required transgenes have been generated).

Optogenetic control of mRNA localization and translation in live cells

Despite efforts to visualize the spatio-temporal dynamics of single messenger RNAs, the ability to precisely control their function has lagged. This study presents an optogenetic approach for manipulating the localization and translation of specific mRNAs by trapping them in clusters. This clustering greatly amplified reporter signals, enabling endogenous RNA-protein interactions to be clearly visualized in single cells. Functionally, this sequestration reduced the ability of mRNAs to access ribosomes, markedly attenuating protein synthesis. A spatio-temporally resolved analysis indicated that sequestration of endogenous β-actin mRNA attenuated cell motility through the regulation of focal-adhesion dynamics. These results suggest a mechanism highlighting the indispensable role of newly synthesized β-actin protein for efficient cell migration. This platform may be broadly applicable for use in investigating the spatio-temporal activities of specific mRNAs in various biological processes.

Glutamate treatment mimics LTP- and LTD-like biochemical activity in viable synaptosome preparation

Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) are considered to be the cellular mechanisms behind the increase or decrease of synaptic strength respectively. Electrophysiologically induced LTP/LTD is associated with the activation of glutamate receptors in the synaptic terminals resulting in the initiation of biochemical processes in the postsynaptic terminals and thus propagation of synaptic activity. Isolated nerve endings i.e. synaptosome preparation was used to study here, the biochemical phenotypes of LTP and LTD, and glutamate treatment in varying concentration for different time was used to induce those biochemical phenomena. Treatment with 200 μM glutamate showed increased GluA1 phosphorylation at serine 831 and activation of CaMKIIα by phosphorylation at threonine 286 like LTP, whereas 100 μM glutamate treatment showed decrease in GluA1 phosphorylation level at both pGluA1(S831) and pGluA1(S845), and activation of GSK3β by de-phosphorylating pGSK3β at serine 9 like LTD. The 200 μM glutamate treatment was associated with an increase in the local translation of Arc, BDNF, CaMKIIα and Homer1, whereas 100 μM glutamate treatments resulted in decrease in the level of the said synaptic proteins and the effect was blocked by the proteasomal inhibitor, Lactasystin. Both, the local translation and local degradation was sensitive to the Ca²⁺ chellator, Bapta-AM, indicating that both the phenomena were dependent on the rise in intra-synaptosomal Ca²⁺, like LTP and LTD. Overall the results of the present study suggest that synaptosomal preparations can be a viable alternative to study mechanisms underlying the biochemical activities of LTP/LTD in short term.

More dynamic, more quantitative, unexpectedly intricate: Advanced understanding on synaptic RNA localization in learning and memory

Synaptic signaling exhibits great diversity, complexity, and plasticity which necessitates maintenance and rapid modification of a local proteome. One solution neurons actively exploit to meet such demands is the strategic deposition of mRNAs encoding proteins for both basal and experience-driven activities into ribonucleoprotein complexes at the synapse. Transcripts localized in this manner can be rapidly accessed for translation in response to a diverse range of stimuli in a temporal- and spatially-restricted manner. Here we review recent findings on localized RNAs and RNA binding proteins in the context of learning and memory, as revealed by cutting-edge in-vitro and in-vivo technologies capable of yielding quantitative and dynamic information. The new technologies include proteomic and transcriptomic analyses, high-resolution multiplexed RNA imaging, single-molecule RNA tracking in living neurons, animal models and human neuron cell models. Among many recent advances in the field, RNA chemical modification has emerged as one of the new regulatory layers of gene expression at synapse that is complex and yet largely unexplored. These exciting new discoveries have enhanced our understanding of the modulation mechanisms of synaptic gene expression and their roles in cognition.

The local translation of KNa in dendritic projections of auditory neurons and the roles of KNa in the transition from hidden to overt hearing loss

Local and privileged expression of dendritic proteins allows segregation of distinct functions in a single neuron but may represent one of the underlying mechanisms for early and insidious presentation of sensory neuropathy. Tangible characteristics of early hearing loss (HL) are defined in correlation with nascent hidden hearing loss (HHL) in humans and animal models. Despite the plethora of causes of HL, only two prevailing mechanisms for HHL have been identified, and in both cases, common structural deficits are implicated in inner hair cell synapses, and demyelination of the auditory nerve (AN). We uncovered that Na⁺-activated K⁺ (K_Na) mRNA and channel proteins are distinctly and locally expressed in dendritic projections of primary ANs and genetic deletion of K_Na channels (Kcnt1 and Kcnt2) results in the loss of proper AN synaptic function, characterized as HHL, without structural synaptic alterations. We further demonstrate that the local functional synaptic alterations transition from HHL to increased hearing-threshold, which entails changes in global Ca²⁺ homeostasis, activation of caspases 3/9, impaired regulation of inositol triphosphate receptor 1 (IP₃R1), and apoptosis-mediated neurodegeneration. Thus, the present study demonstrates how local synaptic dysfunction results in an apparent latent pathological phenotype (HHL) and, if undetected, can lead to overt HL. It also highlights, for the first time, that HHL can precede structural synaptic dysfunction and AN demyelination. The stepwise cellular mechanisms from HHL to canonical HL are revealed, providing a platform for intervention to prevent lasting and irreversible age-related hearing loss (ARHL).

Local protein synthesis is a ubiquitous feature of neuronal pre- and postsynaptic compartments

There is ample evidence for localization of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and protein synthesis in neuronal dendrites; however, demonstrations of these processes in presynaptic terminals are limited. We used expansion microscopy to resolve pre- and postsynaptic compartments in rodent neurons. Most presynaptic terminals in the hippocampus and forebrain contained mRNA and ribosomes. We sorted fluorescently labeled mouse brain synaptosomes and then sequenced hundreds of mRNA species present within excitatory boutons. After brief metabolic labeling, >30% of all presynaptic terminals exhibited a signal, providing evidence for ongoing protein synthesis. We tested different classic plasticity paradigms and observed distinct patterns of rapid pre- and/or postsynaptic translation. Thus, presynaptic terminals are translationally competent, and local protein synthesis is differentially recruited to drive compartment-specific phenotypes that underlie different forms of plasticity.

Neurotrophins induce fission of mitochondria along embryonic sensory axons

Neurotrophins are growth factors that have a multitude of roles in the nervous system. We report that neurotrophins induce the fission of mitochondria along embryonic chick sensory axons driven by combined PI3K and Mek-Erk signaling. Following an initial burst of fission, a new steady state of neurotrophin-dependent mitochondria length is established. Mek-Erk controls the activity of the fission mediator Drp1 GTPase, while PI3K may contribute to the actin-dependent aspect of fission. Drp1-mediated fission is required for nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced collateral branching in vitro and expression of dominant negative Drp1 impairs the branching of axons in the developing spinal cord in vivo. Fission is also required for NGF-induced mitochondria-dependent intra-axonal translation of the actin regulatory protein cortactin, a previously determined component of NGF-induced branching. Collectively, these observations unveil a novel biological function of neurotrophins; the regulation of mitochondrial fission and steady state mitochondrial length and density in axons.

Multiple covalent fluorescence labeling of eukaryotic mRNA at the poly(A) tail enhances translation and can be performed in living cells

Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression occurs by multiple mechanisms, including subcellular localization of mRNA and alteration of the poly(A) tail length. These mechanisms play crucial roles in the dynamics of cell polarization and embryonic development. Furthermore, mRNAs are emerging therapeutics and chemical alterations to increase their translational efficiency are highly sought after. We show that yeast poly(A) polymerase can be used to install multiple azido-modified adenosine nucleotides to luciferase and eGFP-mRNAs. These mRNAs can be efficiently reacted in a bioorthogonal click reaction with fluorescent reporters without degradation and without sequence alterations in their coding or untranslated regions. Importantly, the modifications in the poly(A) tail impact positively on the translational efficiency of reporter-mRNAs in vitro and in cells. Therefore, covalent fluorescent labeling at the poly(A) tail presents a new way to increase the amount of reporter protein from exogenous mRNA and to label genetically unaltered and translationally active mRNAs.

Mechanism and role of the intra-axonal Calreticulin translation in response to axonal injury

Following injury, sensory axons locally translate mRNAs that encode proteins needed for the response to injury, locally and through retrograde signaling, and for regeneration. In this study, we addressed the mechanism and role of axotomy-induced intra-axonal translation of the ER chaperone Calreticulin. In vivo peripheral nerve injury increased Calreticulin levels in sensory axons. Using an in vitro model system of sensory neurons amenable to mechanistic dissection we provide evidence that axotomy induces local translation of Calreticulin through PERK (protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase) mediated phosphorylation of eIF2α by a mechanism that requires both 5' and 3'UTRs (untranslated regions) elements in Calreticulin mRNA. ShRNA mediated depletion of Calreticulin or inhibition of PERK signaling increased axon retraction following axotomy. In contrast, expression of axonally targeted, but not somatically restricted, Calreticulin mRNA decreased retraction and promoted axon regeneration following axotomy in vitro. Collectively, these data indicate that the intra-axonal translation of Calreticulin in response to axotomy serves to minimize the ensuing retraction, and overexpression of axonally targeted Calreticulin mRNA promotes axon regeneration.

Of Molecules and Mechanisms

Without question, molecular biology drives modern neuroscience. The past 50 years has been nothing short of revolutionary as key findings have moved the field from correlation toward causation. Most obvious are the discoveries and strategies that have been used to build tools for visualizing circuits, measuring activity, and regulating behavior. Less flashy, but arguably as important are the myriad investigations uncovering the actions of single molecules, macromolecular structures, and integrated machines that serve as the basis for constructing cellular and signaling pathways identified in wide-scale gene or RNA studies and for feeding data into informational networks used in systems biology. This review follows the pathways that were opened in neuroscience by major discoveries and set the stage for the next 50 years.

Translational Control in the Brain in Health and Disease

Translational control in neurons is crucially required for long-lasting changes in synaptic function and memory storage. The importance of protein synthesis control to brain processes is underscored by the large number of neurological disorders in which translation rates are perturbed, such as autism and neurodegenerative disorders. Here we review the general principles of neuronal translation, focusing on the particular relevance of several key regulators of nervous system translation, including eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), the mechanistic (or mammalian) target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), and the eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2). These pathways regulate the overall rate of protein synthesis in neurons and have selective effects on the translation of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs). The importance of these general and specific translational control mechanisms is considered in the normal functioning of the nervous system, particularly during synaptic plasticity underlying memory, and in the context of neurological disorders.

How mRNA Localization and Protein Synthesis Sites Influence Dendritic Protein Distribution and Dynamics

Proteins drive the function of neuronal synapses. The synapses are distributed throughout the dendritic arbor, often hundreds of micrometers away from the soma. It is still unclear how somatic and dendritic sources of proteins shape protein distribution and respectively contribute to local protein changes during synaptic plasticity. Here, we present a unique computational framework describing for a given protein species the dendritic distribution of the mRNA and the corresponding protein in a dendrite. Using CaMKIIα as a test case, our model reveals the key role active transport plays in the maintenance of dendritic mRNA and protein levels and predicts the short and long timescales of protein dynamics. Our model reveals the fundamental role of mRNA localization and dendritic mRNA translation in synaptic maintenance and plasticity in distal compartments. We developed a web application for neuroscientists to explore the dynamics of the mRNA or protein of interest.

Local translation in neurons: visualization and function

Neurons are among the most compartmentalized and interactive of all cell types. Like all cells, neurons use proteins as the main sensors and effectors. The modification of the proteome in axons and dendrites is used to guide the formation of synaptic connections and to store information. In this Review, we discuss the data indicating that an important source of protein for dendrites, axons and their associated elements is provided by the local synthesis of proteins. We review the data indicating the presence of the machinery required for protein synthesis, the direct visualization and demonstration of protein synthesis, and the established functional roles for local translation for many different neuronal functions. Finally, we consider the open questions and future directions in this field.

Super-resolution imaging and estimation of protein copy numbers at single synapses with DNA-point accumulation for imaging in nanoscale topography

In the brain, the strength of each individual synapse is defined by the complement of proteins present or the "local proteome." Activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength are the result of changes in this local proteome and posttranslational protein modifications. Although most synaptic proteins have been identified, we still know little about protein copy numbers in individual synapses and variations between synapses. We use DNA-point accumulation for imaging in nanoscale topography as a single-molecule super-resolution imaging technique to visualize and quantify protein copy numbers in single synapses. The imaging technique provides near-molecular spatial resolution, is unaffected by photobleaching, enables imaging of large field of views, and provides quantitative molecular information. We demonstrate these benefits by accessing copy numbers of surface AMPA-type receptors at single synapses of rat hippocampal neurons along dendritic segments.

BDNF increases synaptic NMDA receptor abundance by enhancing the local translation of Pyk2 in cultured hippocampal neurons

The effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in long-term synaptic potentiation (LTP) are thought to underlie learning and memory formation and are partly mediated by local protein synthesis. Here, we investigated the mechanisms that mediate BDNF-induced alterations in the synaptic proteome that are coupled to synaptic strengthening. BDNF induced the synaptic accumulation of GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and increased the amplitude of NMDAR-mediated miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in cultured rat hippocampal neurons by a mechanism requiring activation of the protein tyrosine kinase Pyk2 and dependent on cellular protein synthesis. Single-particle tracking using quantum dot imaging revealed that the increase in the abundance of synaptic NMDAR currents correlated with their enhanced stability in the synaptic compartment. Furthermore, BDNF increased the local synthesis of Pyk2 at the synapse, and the observed increase in Pyk2 protein abundance along dendrites of cultured hippocampal neurons was mediated by a mechanism dependent on the ribonucleoprotein hnRNP K, which bound to Pyk2 mRNA and dissociated from it upon BDNF application. Knocking down hnRNP K reduced the BDNF-induced synaptic synthesis of Pyk2 protein, whereas its overexpression enhanced it. Together, these findings indicate that hnRNP K mediates the synaptic distribution of Pyk2 synthesis, and hence the synaptic incorporation of GluN2B-containing NMDARs, induced by BDNF, which may affect LTP and synaptic plasticity.

Fragile X mental retardation protein modulates the stability of its m6A-marked messenger RNA targets

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most prevalent internal modification of mammalian messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs. The biological functions of this reversible RNA modification can be interpreted by cytoplasmic and nuclear 'm6A reader' proteins to fine-tune gene expression, such as mRNA degradation and translation initiation. Here we profiled transcriptome-wide m6A sites in adult mouse cerebral cortex, underscoring that m6A is a widespread epitranscriptomic modification in brain. Interestingly, the mRNA targets of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), a selective RNA-binding protein, are enriched for m6A marks. Loss of functional FMRP leads to Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common inherited form of intellectual disability. Transcriptome-wide gene expression profiling identified 2035 genes differentially expressed in the absence of FMRP in cortex, and 92.5% of 174 downregulated FMRP targets are marked by m6A. Biochemical analyses indicate that FMRP binds to the m6A sites of its mRNA targets and interacts with m6A reader YTHDF2 in an RNA-independent manner. FMRP maintains the stability of its mRNA targets while YTHDF2 promotes the degradation of these mRNAs. These data together suggest that FMRP regulates the stability of its m6A-marked mRNA targets through YTHDF2, which could potentially contribute to the molecular pathogenesis of FXS.

Fluorescence Imaging Methods to Investigate Translation in Single Cells

Translation is the fundamental biological process that converts the genetic information in messenger RNAs (mRNAs) into functional proteins. Translation regulation allows cells to control when, where, and how many proteins are synthesized. Much of what we know about translation comes from ensemble approaches that measure the average of many cells. The cellular and molecular heterogeneity in the regulation of translation remains largely elusive. Fluorescence microscopy allows interrogation of biological problems with single-molecule, single-cell sensitivity. In recent years, improved design of reagents and microscopy tools has led to improved spatial and temporal resolution of translation imaging. It is now possible to track global translation in specific subcellular compartments and follow the translation dynamics of single transcripts. Highlighted here is the recent progress in translation imaging with emphasis on in vivo translation dynamics. These tools will be invaluable to the study of translation regulation.

Impaired Cognitive Function and Altered Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity in Mice Lacking Dermatan Sulfotransferase Chst14/D4st1

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) and dermatan sulfate (DS) proteoglycans (PGs) are major extracellular matrix (ECM) components of the central nervous system (CNS). A large body of evidence has shown that CSPGs/DSPGs play critical roles in neuronal growth, axon guidance, and plasticity in the developing and mature CNS. It has been proposed that these PGs exert their function through specific interaction of CS/DS chains with its binding partners in a manner that depends on the sulfation patterns of CS/DS. It has been reported that dermatan 4-O-sulfotransferase-1 (Chst14/D4st1) specific for DS, but not chondroitin 4-O-sulfotransferase-1 (Chst11/C4st1) specific for CS, regulates proliferation and neurogenesis of neural stem cells (NSCs), indicating that CS and DS play distinct roles in the self-renewal and differentiation of NSCs. However, it remains unknown whether specific sulfation profiles of DS has any effect on CNS plasticity. In the present study, Chst14/D4st1-deficient (Chst14^−/−) mice was employed to investigate the involvement of DS in synaptic plasticity. First, behavior study using Morris Water Maze (MWM) showed that the spatial learning and memory of Chst14^−/− mice was impaired when compared to their wild type (WT) littermates. Corroborating the behavior result, long-term potentiation (LTP) at the hippocampal CA3-CA1 connection was reduced in Chst14^−/− mice compared to the WT mice. Finally, the protein levels of N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor, postsynaptic density 95 (PSD95), growth associated protein 43 (GAP-43), synaptophysin (SYN) and N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor (NSF) which are important in synaptic plasticity were examined and Chst14/D4st1 deficiency was shown to significantly reduce the expression of these proteins in the hippocampus. Further studies revealed that Akt/mammalian target rapamycin (mTOR) pathway proteins, including protein kinase B (p-Akt), p-mTOR and p-S6, were significantly lower in Chst14^−/− mice, which might contribute to the decreased protein expression. Together, this study reveals that specific sulfation of DS is critical in synaptic plasticity of the hippocampus and learning and memory, which might be associated with the changes in the expression of glutamate receptors and other synaptic proteins though Akt/mTOR pathway.

Comprehensive catalog of dendritically localized mRNA isoforms from sub-cellular sequencing of single mouse neurons

Background

RNA localization involves cis-motifs that are recognized by RNA-binding proteins (RBP), which then mediate localization to specific sub-cellular compartments. RNA localization is critical for many different cell functions, e.g., in neuronal dendrites, localization is a critical step for long-lasting synaptic potentiation. However, there is little consensus regarding which RNAs are localized and the role of alternative isoforms in localization. A comprehensive catalog of localized RNA can help dissect RBP/RNA interactions and localization motifs. Here, we utilize a single cell sub-cellular RNA sequencing approach to profile differentially localized RNAs from individual cells across multiple single cells to help identify a consistent set of localized RNA in mouse neurons.

Results

Using independent RNA sequencing from soma and dendrites of the same neuron, we deeply profiled the sub-cellular transcriptomes to assess the extent and variability of dendritic RNA localization in individual hippocampal neurons, including an assessment of differential localization of alternative 3′UTR isoforms. We identified 2225 dendritic RNAs, including 298 cases of 3′UTR isoform-specific localization. We extensively analyzed the localized RNAs for potential localization motifs, finding that B1 and B2 SINE elements are up to 5.7 times more abundant in localized RNA 3′UTRs than non-localized, and also functionally characterized the localized RNAs using protein structure analysis.

Conclusion

We integrate our list of localized RNAs with the literature to provide a comprehensive list of known dendritically localized RNAs as a resource. This catalog of transcripts, including differentially localized isoforms and computationally hypothesized localization motifs, will help investigators further dissect the genome-scale mechanism of RNA localization.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12915-019-0630-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An in vivo translation-reporter system for the study of protein synthesis in zebrafish embryos

Control of gene expression at the translation level is increasingly regarded as a key feature in many biological processes. Simple, inexpensive and reliable procedures to visualize sites of protein production are required to allow observation of the spatiotemporal patterns of mRNA translation at subcellular resolution. We present a method, named SPoT (for Subcellular Patterns of Translation), developed upon the original TimeStamp technique ( Lin et al., 2008), consisting in the expression of a fluorescent protein fused to a tagged, self-cleavable protease domain. The addition of a cell-permeable protease inhibitor instantly stabilizes newly produced tagged protein allowing us to distinguish recently synthesized proteins from pre-existing ones. After a brief protease inhibitor treatment, the ratio of tagged versus non-tagged forms is highest at sites where proteins are the most recent, i.e. sites of synthesis. Therefore, by comparing tagged and non-tagged proteins it is possible to spotlight sites of translation. By specifically expressing the SPoT cassette in neurons of transgenic zebrafish embryos, we reveal sites of neuronal protein synthesis in diverse cellular compartments during early development.

Summary: We describe a transgene-based method, SPoT, that reveals subcellular sites of protein synthesis in neurons of wholemount zebrafish embryos.

Axonal G3BP1 stress granule protein limits axonal mRNA translation and nerve regeneration

Critical functions of intra-axonally synthesized proteins are thought to depend on regulated recruitment of mRNA from storage depots in axons. Here we show that axotomy of mammalian neurons induces translation of stored axonal mRNAs via regulation of the stress granule protein G3BP1, to support regeneration of peripheral nerves. G3BP1 aggregates within peripheral nerve axons in stress granule-like structures that decrease during regeneration, with a commensurate increase in phosphorylated G3BP1. Colocalization of G3BP1 with axonal mRNAs is also correlated with the growth state of the neuron. Disrupting G3BP functions by overexpressing a dominant-negative protein activates intra-axonal mRNA translation, increases axon growth in cultured neurons, disassembles axonal stress granule-like structures, and accelerates rat nerve regeneration in vivo.

G3BP1 is RasGAP SH3 domain binding protein 1 that interacts with 48S pre-initiation complex when translation is stalled. Here, Twiss and colleagues show that neuronal G3BP1 can negatively regulate axonal mRNA translation, and inhibit axonal regeneration after injury.

Local and global influences on protein turnover in neurons and glia

Regulation of protein turnover allows cells to react to their environment and maintain homeostasis. Proteins can show different turnover rates in different tissue, but little is known about protein turnover in different brain cell types. We used dynamic SILAC to determine half-lives of over 5100 proteins in rat primary hippocampal cultures as well as in neuron-enriched and glia-enriched cultures ranging from <1 to >20 days. In contrast to synaptic proteins, membrane proteins were relatively shorter-lived and mitochondrial proteins were longer-lived compared to the population. Half-lives also correlate with protein functions and the dynamics of the complexes they are incorporated in. Proteins in glia possessed shorter half-lives than the same proteins in neurons. The presence of glia sped up or slowed down the turnover of neuronal proteins. Our results demonstrate that both the cell-type of origin as well as the nature of the extracellular environment have potent influences on protein turnover.

De novo tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis is impaired in the inflammed striatum of parkin(-/-) mice

Parkinson's disease (PD), the second-most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, is primarily characterized by neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta, resulting in motor impairment. Loss-of-function mutations in parkin are the major cause of the early onset familial form of the disease. Although rodents deficient in parkin (parkin(-/-) ) have some dopaminergic system dysfunction associated with central oxidative stress and energy metabolism deficiencies, these animals only display nigrostriatal pathway degeneration under inflammatory conditions. This study investigated the impact of the inflammatory stimulus induced by lypopolisaccharide (LPS) on tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) synthesizing enzymes (de novo and salvage pathways), since this cofactor is essential for dopamine synthesis. The mitochondrial content and architecture was investigated in the striatum of LPS-exposed parkin(-/-) mice. As expected, the LPS (0.33 mg/kg; i.p.) challenge compromised spontaneous locomotion and social interaction with juvenile parkin(-/-) and WT mice. Moreover, the genotype impacted the kinetics of the investigation of the juvenile. The inflammatory scenario did not induce apparent changes in mitochondrial ultrastructure; however, it increased the quantity of mitochondria, which were of smaller size, and provoked the perinuclear distribution of the organelle. Furthermore, the BH4 de novo biosynthetic pathway failed to be up-regulated in the LPS challenge, a well-known stimulus for its activation. The LPS treatment increased sepiapterin reductase (SPR) expression, suggesting compensation by the salvage pathway. This might indicate that dopamine synthesis is compromised in parkin(-/-) mice under inflammatory conditions. Finally, this scenario impaired the striatal expression of the transcription factor BDNF, possibly favoring cell death.

Ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors regulate protein translation in co-cultured nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex neurons

The regulation of protein translation by glutamate receptors and its role in plasticity have been extensively studied in the hippocampus. In contrast, very little is known about glutamatergic regulation of translation in nucleus accumbens (NAc) medium spiny neurons (MSN), despite their critical role in addiction-related plasticity and recent evidence that protein translation contributes to this plasticity. We used a co-culture system, containing NAc MSNs and prefrontal cortex (PFC) neurons, and fluorescent non-canonical amino acid tagging (FUNCAT) to visualize newly synthesized proteins in neuronal processes of NAc MSNs and PFC pyramidal neurons. First, we verified that the FUNCAT signal reflects new protein translation. Next, we examined the regulation of translation by group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) and ionotropic glutamate receptors by incubating co-cultures with agonists or antagonists during the 2-h period of non-canonical amino acid labeling. In NAc MSNs, basal translation was modestly reduced by blocking Ca²⁺-permeable AMPARs whereas blocking all AMPARs or suppressing constitutive mGluR5 signaling enhanced translation. Activating group I mGluRs with dihydroxyphenylglycine increased translation in an mGluR1-dependent manner in NAc MSNs and PFC pyramidal neurons. Disinhibiting excitatory transmission with bicuculline also increased translation. In MSNs, this was reversed by antagonists of mGluR1, mGluR5, AMPARs or NMDARs. In PFC neurons, AMPAR or NMDAR antagonists blocked bicuculline-stimulated translation. Our study, the first to examine glutamatergic regulation of translation in MSNs, demonstrates regulatory mechanisms specific to MSNs that depend on the level of neuronal activation. This sets the stage for understanding how translation may be altered in addiction.

Alternative 3' UTRs Modify the Localization, Regulatory Potential, Stability, and Plasticity of mRNAs in Neuronal Compartments

Neurons localize mRNAs near synapses where their translation can be regulated by synaptic demand and activity. Differences in the 3' UTRs of mRNAs can change their localization, stability, and translational regulation. Using 3' end RNA sequencing of microdissected rat brain slices, we discovered a huge diversity in mRNA 3' UTRs, with many transcripts showing enrichment for a particular 3' UTR isoform in either somata or the neuropil. The 3' UTR isoforms of localized transcripts are significantly longer than the 3' UTRs of non-localized transcripts and often code for proteins associated with axons, dendrites, and synapses. Surprisingly, long 3' UTRs add not only new, but also duplicate regulatory elements. The neuropil-enriched 3' UTR isoforms have significantly longer half-lives than somata-enriched isoforms. Finally, the 3' UTR isoforms can be significantly altered by enhanced activity. Most of the 3' UTR plasticity is transcription dependent, but intriguing examples of changes that are consistent with altered stability, trafficking between compartments, or local "remodeling" remain.

Aberrant RNA translation in fragile X syndrome: From FMRP mechanisms to emerging therapeutic strategies

Research in the past decades has unfolded the multifaceted role of Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) and how its absence contributes to the pathophysiology of Fragile X syndrome (FXS). Excess signaling through group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors is commonly observed in mouse models of FXS, which in part is attributed to dysregulated translation and downstream signaling. Considering the wide spectrum of cellular and physiologic functions that loss of FMRP can affect in general, it may be advantageous to pursue disease mechanism based treatments that directly target translational components or signaling factors that regulate protein synthesis. Various FMRP targets upstream and downstream of the translational machinery are therefore being investigated to further our understanding of the molecular mechanism of RNA and protein synthesis dysregulation in FXS as well as test their potential role as therapeutic interventions to alleviate FXS associated symptoms. In this review, we will broadly discuss recent advancements made towards understanding the role of FMRP in translation regulation, new pre-clinical animal models with FMRP targets located at different levels of the translational and signal transduction pathways for therapeutic intervention as well as future use of stem cells to model FXS associated phenotypes.

Recruitment of Staufen2 Enhances Dendritic Localization of an Intron-Containing CaMKIIα mRNA

Regulation of mRNA localization is a conserved cellular process observed in many types of cells and organisms. Asymmetrical mRNA distribution plays a particularly important role in the nervous system, where local translation of localized mRNA represents a key mechanism in synaptic plasticity. CaMKIIα is a very abundant mRNA detected in neurites, consistent with its crucial role at glutamatergic synapses. Here, we report the presence of CaMKIIα mRNA isoforms that contain intron i16 in dendrites, RNA granules, and synaptoneurosomes from primary neurons and brain. This subpopulation of unspliced mRNA preferentially localizes to distal dendrites in a synaptic-activity-dependent manner. Staufen2, a well-established marker of RNA transport in dendrites, interacts with intron i16 sequences and enhances its distal dendritic localization, pointing to the existence of intron-mediated mechanisms in the molecular pathways that modulate dendritic transport and localization of synaptic mRNAs.

Time- and polarity-dependent proteomic changes associated with homeostatic scaling at central synapses

In homeostatic scaling at central synapses, the depth and breadth of cellular mechanisms that detect the offset from the set-point, detect the duration of the offset and implement a cellular response are not well understood. To understand the time-dependent scaling dynamics we treated cultured rat hippocampal cells with either TTX or bicucculline for 2 hr to induce the process of up- or down-scaling, respectively. During the activity manipulation we metabolically labeled newly synthesized proteins using BONCAT. We identified 168 newly synthesized proteins that exhibited significant changes in expression. To obtain a temporal trajectory of the response, we compared the proteins synthesized within 2 hr or 24 hr of the activity manipulation. Surprisingly, there was little overlap in the significantly regulated newly synthesized proteins identified in the early- and integrated late response datasets. There was, however, overlap in the functional categories that are modulated early and late. These data indicate that within protein function groups, different proteomic choices can be made to effect early and late homeostatic responses that detect the duration and polarity of the activity manipulation.

The brain can store information by changing the strength of connections between neurons, also known as synapses. When two neurons at a synapse are active at the same time, the synapse becomes stronger. This enables the first neuron to activate the second more easily. But it also means that the two neurons will now be active at the same time more often, which will tend to make the synapse even stronger. If this process continues unchecked, the synapse will keep getting stronger until no further changes in strength are possible. This will make it harder for the brain to form new memories.

To prevent this from happening, the brain responds to prolonged changes in the activity of neurons by adjusting the strength of synapses in the opposite direction. If neurons are too active for an extended period of time, the brain reduces the strength of synapses. If neurons show too little activity, the brain increases the strength of synapses. This process is known as homeostatic scaling, and the brain achieves it by adjusting the number and/or type of proteins present at synapses.

Schanzenbächer et al. now reveal the changes in synaptic proteins that occur in response to a two-hour increase or decrease in neuronal activity. These changes can be tracked in the laboratory by growing cells in a petri dish in the presence of modified amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Any new proteins the cells produce will contain the modified amino acids, making them easy to spot. Schanzenbächer et al. applied this technique to neurons obtained from the rat hippocampus, a region of the brain involved in learning and memory. Bathing the neurons for two hours in chemicals that either enhanced or reduced their activity, triggered changes in more than 150 proteins.

Schanzenbächer et al. compared these results to those of a previous experiment in which neuronal activity had been manipulated for 24 hours. Each set of conditions produced a characteristic profile of protein activity. The profiles indicated whether the activity in neurons had increased or decreased, and whether the changes had lasted for two hours or 24 hours. These findings may provide insights into disease states in which there is too much or too little brain activity.

Demonstration of ion channel synthesis by isolated squid giant axon provides functional evidence for localized axonal membrane protein translation

Local translation of membrane proteins in neuronal subcellular domains like soma, dendrites and axon termini is well-documented. In this study, we isolated the electrical signaling unit of an axon by dissecting giant axons from mature squids (Dosidicus gigas). Axoplasm extracted from these axons was found to contain ribosomal RNAs, ~8000 messenger RNA species, many encoding the translation machinery, membrane proteins, translocon and signal recognition particle (SRP) subunits, endomembrane-associated proteins, and unprecedented proportions of SRP RNA (~68% identical to human homolog). While these components support endoplasmic reticulum-dependent protein synthesis, functional assessment of a newly synthesized membrane protein in axolemma of an isolated axon is technically challenging. Ion channels are ideal proteins for this purpose because their functional dynamics can be directly evaluated by applying voltage clamp across the axon membrane. We delivered in vitro transcribed RNA encoding native or Drosophila voltage-activated Shaker KV channel into excised squid giant axons. We found that total K+ currents increased in both cases; with added inactivation kinetics on those axons injected with RNA encoding the Shaker channel. These results provide unambiguous evidence that isolated axons can exhibit de novo synthesis, assembly and membrane incorporation of fully functional oligomeric membrane proteins.

RNG105/caprin1, an RNA granule protein for dendritic mRNA localization, is essential for long-term memory formation

Local regulation of synaptic efficacy is thought to be important for proper networking of neurons and memory formation. Dysregulation of global translation influences long-term memory in mice, but the relevance of the regulation specific for local translation by RNA granules remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate roles of RNG105/caprin1 in long-term memory formation. RNG105 deletion in mice impaired synaptic strength and structural plasticity in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, RNG105-deficient mice displayed unprecedentedly severe defects in long-term memory formation in spatial and contextual learning tasks. Genome-wide profiling of mRNA distribution in the hippocampus revealed an underlying mechanism: RNG105 deficiency impaired the asymmetric somato-dendritic localization of mRNAs. Particularly, RNG105 deficiency reduced the dendritic localization of mRNAs encoding regulators of AMPAR surface expression, which was consistent with attenuated homeostatic AMPAR scaling in dendrites and reduced synaptic strength. Thus, RNG105 has an essential role, as a key regulator of dendritic mRNA localization, in long-term memory formation.

Messages pass from one nerve cell to the next across gaps called synapses. The first neuron releases chemical signals from the end of its long, thin nerve fiber. The second receives the message at receptors on branching structures known as dendrites. Each connection has a corresponding bump called a dendritic spine. As animals learn, these can grow larger, strengthening the connection. This is the basis of how memories form.

To strengthen a synapse, the cell must transport the materials to the dendritic spine. The cell makes copies of the genetic instructions to strengthen the synapse in the form of messenger RNA (often shortened to mRNA). But, this happens in the body of the cell, a long way from the dendrites themselves. The mRNA travels from the cell body to the dendrites in collections of molecules referred to as ‘RNA granules’.

One of the key components of the RNA granule system is a protein called RNG105/caprin1. Now, Nakayama, Ohashi et al. have engineered mice to delete the gene for RNG105/caprin1, revealing its effect on memory. Mice lacking RNG105/caprin1 struggled to make long-term memories. Unlike their normal counterparts, these mutant mice did not become accustomed to new environments or objects. They also found it more challenging to learn the position of a hidden platform in a water-based maze. Lastly, over time, the mutant mice forgot to be fearful of a dark chamber where they had received a small electric shock.

Memories form in a part of the brain called the hippocampus and the dendritic spines in this region were smaller in mice lacking RNG105/caprin1. Furthermore, when the nerve cells from this part of the brain were grown in Petri dishes, they did not respond normally to stimulation. The dendritic spines of normal cells increased in size, but those on the cells lacking RNG105/caprin1 got smaller compared to normal cells.

A closer look revealed that the distribution of mRNA in brain cells from mice lacking RNG105/caprin1 differed from that of normal mice. Some pieces of genetic information failed to make it from the cell body to the dendrites. This included mRNA involved in making regulators of a component of dendritic spines called the AMPA receptor. The AMPA receptor detects the chemical messenger, glutamate, and is crucial for memory formation.

These findings further our understanding of long-term memory and open the way for future research into human disease. Mutations in RNA granule components, including RNG105/caprin1, have links to conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further investigation could reveal new targets for drug treatment.

Activity-dependent expression of Channelrhodopsin at neuronal synapses

Increasing evidence points to the importance of dendritic spines in the formation and allocation of memories, and alterations of spine number and physiology are associated to memory and cognitive disorders. Modifications of the activity of subsets of synapses are believed to be crucial for memory establishment. However, the development of a method to directly test this hypothesis, by selectively controlling the activity of potentiated spines, is currently lagging. Here we introduce a hybrid RNA/protein approach to regulate the expression of a light-sensitive membrane channel at activated synapses, enabling selective tagging of potentiated spines following the encoding of a novel context in the hippocampus. This approach can be used to map potentiated synapses in the brain and will make it possible to re-activate the neuron only at previously activated synapses, extending current neuron-tagging technologies in the investigation of memory processes.

Preparation of polysomal fractions from mouse brain synaptoneurosomes and analysis of polysomal-bound mRNAs

BACKGROUND

Here we describe a detailed, reliable protocol for isolation of polysomal fractions from mouse brain synaptoneurosomes. This method is an important tool to study local protein synthesis in neurons.

NEW METHOD

We combined rapid preparation of synaptoneurosomes by filtration with polysome profiling. We provide a detailed protocol highlighting difficulties and critical steps of: i) preparation of synaptoneurosomes; ii) polyribosome fractionation from synaptoneurosomes; iii) extraction of proteins and RNA from sucrose gradient fractions.

RESULTS

and Comparison with Existing Methods We fractionated polyribosomes from synaptoneurosomes and detected the association of Mmp9, Camk2a and Stx1B mRNA with polysomes in the unstimulated conditions. Synaptic stimulation led to increased levels of Mmp9 and Camk2a mRNA in the heavy polysomal fractions. We compared our protocol with existing methods CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a reliable, effective method to prepare polyribosomal fractions from synaptoneurosomes to study polyribosomal binding of mRNAs as an aspect of synaptic translation in vitro.

The Long 3'UTR mRNA of CaMKII Is Essential for Translation-Dependent Plasticity of Spontaneous Release in Drosophila melanogaster

A null mutation of the Drosophila calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II gene (CaMKII) was generated using homologous recombination. Null animals survive to larval and pupal stages due to a large maternal contribution of CaMKII mRNA, which consists of a short 3'-untranslated region (UTR) form lacking regulatory elements that guide local translation. The selective loss of the long 3'UTR mRNA in CaMKII-null larvae allows us to test its role in plasticity. Development and evoked function of the larval neuromuscular junction are surprisingly normal, but the resting rate of miniature excitatory junctional potentials (mEJPs) is significantly lower in CaMKII mutants. Mutants also lack the ability to increase mEJP rate in response to spaced depolarization, a type of activity-dependent plasticity shown to require both transcription and translation. Consistent with this, overexpression of miR-289 in wild-type animals blocks plasticity of spontaneous release. In addition to the defects in regulation of mEJP rate, CaMKII protein is largely lost from synapses in the mutant. All phenotypes are non-sex-specific and rescued by a fosmid containing the entire wild-type CaMKII locus, but only viability and CaMKII localization are rescued by genomic fosmids lacking the long 3'UTR. This suggests that synaptic CaMKII accumulates by two distinct mechanisms: local synthesis requiring the long 3'UTR form of CaMKII mRNA and a process that requires zygotic transcription of CaMKII mRNA. The origin of synaptic CaMKII also dictates its functionality. Locally translated CaMKII has a privileged role in regulation of spontaneous release, which cannot be fulfilled by synaptic CaMKII from the other pool.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT As a regulator of synaptic development and plasticity, CaMKII has important roles in both normal and pathological function of the nervous system. CaMKII shows high conservation between Drosophila and humans, underscoring the usefulness of Drosophila in modeling its function. Drosophila CaMKII-null mutants remain viable throughout development, enabling morphological and electrophysiological characterization. Although the structure of the synapse is normal, maternally contributed CaMKII does not localize to synapses. Zygotic production of CaMKII mRNA with a long 3'-untranslated region is necessary for modulating spontaneous neurotransmission in an activity-dependent manner, but not for viability. These data argue that regulation of CaMKII localization and levels by local transcriptional processes is conserved. This is the first demonstration of distinct functions for Drosophila CaMKII mRNA variants.

Activity-dependent spatially localized miRNA maturation in neuronal dendrites

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression by binding to target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and preventing their translation. In general, the number of potential mRNA targets in a cell is much greater than the miRNA copy number, complicating high-fidelity miRNA-target interactions. We developed an inducible fluorescent probe to explore whether the maturation of a miRNA could be regulated in space and time in neurons. A precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) probe exhibited an activity-dependent increase in fluorescence, suggesting the stimulation of miRNA maturation. Single-synapse stimulation resulted in a local maturation of miRNA that was associated with a spatially restricted reduction in the protein synthesis of a target mRNA. Thus, the spatially and temporally regulated maturation of pre-miRNAs can be used to increase the precision and robustness of miRNA-mediated translational repression.

The malleable brain: plasticity of neural circuits and behavior - a review from students to students

One of the most intriguing features of the brain is its ability to be malleable, allowing it to adapt continually to changes in the environment. Specific neuronal activity patterns drive long-lasting increases or decreases in the strength of synaptic connections, referred to as long-term potentiation and long-term depression, respectively. Such phenomena have been described in a variety of model organisms, which are used to study molecular, structural, and functional aspects of synaptic plasticity. This review originated from the first International Society for Neurochemistry (ISN) and Journal of Neurochemistry (JNC) Flagship School held in Alpbach, Austria (Sep 2016), and will use its curriculum and discussions as a framework to review some of the current knowledge in the field of synaptic plasticity. First, we describe the role of plasticity during development and the persistent changes of neural circuitry occurring when sensory input is altered during critical developmental stages. We then outline the signaling cascades resulting in the synthesis of new plasticity-related proteins, which ultimately enable sustained changes in synaptic strength. Going beyond the traditional understanding of synaptic plasticity conceptualized by long-term potentiation and long-term depression, we discuss system-wide modifications and recently unveiled homeostatic mechanisms, such as synaptic scaling. Finally, we describe the neural circuits and synaptic plasticity mechanisms driving associative memory and motor learning. Evidence summarized in this review provides a current view of synaptic plasticity in its various forms, offers new insights into the underlying mechanisms and behavioral relevance, and provides directions for future research in the field of synaptic plasticity. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 788. Cover Image for this issue: doi: 10.1111/jnc.13815.

RNA Docking and Local Translation Regulate Site-Specific Axon Remodeling In Vivo

Nascent proteins can be positioned rapidly at precise subcellular locations by local protein synthesis (LPS) to facilitate localized growth responses. Axon arbor architecture, a major determinant of synaptic connectivity, is shaped by localized growth responses, but it is unknown whether LPS influences these responses in vivo. Using high-resolution live imaging, we examined the spatiotemporal dynamics of RNA and LPS in retinal axons during arborization in vivo. Endogenous RNA tracking reveals that RNA granules dock at sites of branch emergence and invade stabilized branches. Live translation reporter analysis reveals that de novo β-actin hotspots colocalize with docked RNA granules at the bases and tips of new branches. Inhibition of axonal β-actin mRNA translation disrupts arbor dynamics primarily by reducing new branch emergence and leads to impoverished terminal arbors. The results demonstrate a requirement for LPS in building arbor complexity and suggest a key role for pre-synaptic LPS in assembling neural circuits.

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Tracking endogenous RNA shows that RNA docking predicts axon branch emergence in vivo

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Axon arbor complexity in vivo depends on local protein synthesis

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Axonal β-actin synthesis regulates branching by increased branch initiation

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Live imaging reveals de novo synthesis of β-actin hotspots during branch formation