The neurobiology of hepatic encephalopathy

The Effects of Ionotropic GABA Receptor Blockage on the Brain in Rats with Induced Sepsis

Encephalopathy following sepsis is defined as life-threatening organ failure due to the irregular response of the host to infection and has high mortality and morbidity rates. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of inflammation and the gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) receptor antagonist, bicuculline, on brain tissue in rats with sepsis. Sepsis was experimentally generated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The rats were divided into four groups: control, LPS (10 mg/kg i.p.), bicuculline (1.5 mg/kg s.c.), and LPS+Bic. Electrophysiologic recordings and body temperature measurements were completed at the 24th hour, and samples were taken. TNF-α, IL-10, GABA, and MDA levels were measured. Tissue imaging was performed using S100-ß, NEUN, and synaptophysin antibodies. One-way ANOVA followed by the Tukey test was performed for statistical analysis. Inflammatory parameters significantly increased in brain tissue in the LPS group compared with the other groups (TNF-α, [F (3.14) = 6.015, p = 0.042]; IL-10, [F (3.15) = 9.013, p = 0.02]). Tissue imaging results were as follows: S100-ß involvement increased, and NeuN and synaptophysin involvement decreased in the LPS group [F (3.21) = 18.016, p = 0.006, for S100-ß; F (3.21) = 19.071, p = 0.003, for NeuN; F (3.21) = 18.098, p = 0.005, for synaptophysin]. In electrophysiologic recordings, we observed activity consistent with acute non-focal seizures in the LPS group. Contrarily, the control and other comparison groups exhibited normal resting neural activity. Bicuculline may be used as a therapeutic agent in sepsis to maintain the neurotransmitter and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine balance and reduce lipid peroxidation with its effects of acetylcholine esterase inhibition and GABAA receptor antagonism.

Toxicant-Induced Hepatic Injury

The sudden failure of a previously healthy and functioning liver is a dramatic and devastating event. Acute liver failure is the common final pathway of a multitude of conditions and insults, all of which result in massive hepatic necrosis or loss of normal hepatic function. The ensuing multiorgan system failure frequently has a fatal outcome, with mortality rates in most series ranging from approximately 55% to 95% [1]. Acute liver failure (ALF, previously often referred to as fulminant hepatic failure (FHF)) knows no age boundaries, with many cases occurring in those younger than 30 years. Short of excellent intensive care unit (ICU) support and liver transplantation in selected cases, few viable treatment options are available. Over the past few decades, however, survival has been improved by anticipation, recognition, and early treatment of associated complications, as well as the application of prognostic criteria for early identification of patients requiring liver transplantation (along with improvement in the techniques and science of transplantation itself). The etiology of ALF varies from country to country and the incidence change over time. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) has now replaced viral hepatitis as the leading cause of ALF [2]. In a study from London including 310 patients with ALF in the period 1994–2004, 42% of the cases were caused by paracetamol [3], whereas this was only the cause in 2% of 267 patients in Spain from 1992 to 2000 [4]. However, less than 10% of all liver transplants are performed in patients with ALF [5, 6].

Update on management of patients with overt hepatic encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a multifactorial neuropsychiatric disease that affects patients with cirrhosis. We review the clinical impact, pathogenesis, evaluation, management, and prevention of overt HE in patients with cirrhosis. Articles published between January 1960 and November 2012 were acquired through a MEDLINE search of different combinations of the terms hepatic encephalopathy, pathophysiology, treatment, prophylaxis, prevention, prognosis, and recurrence. The Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project database was used to obtain prevalence and cost information related to hospitalizations of patients with HE. The literature describes significant morbidity and mortality of HE in patients with cirrhosis. Overt HE develops in 30% to 45% of patients with cirrhosis and is associated with a substantial pharmacoeconomic burden, particularly HE-related hospitalizations. The development of HE in patients with cirrhosis portends a worsened prognosis and is incorporated into the Child-Pugh classification of the severity of liver disease. In the hospitalized patient, the development of HE is associated with precipitating events (eg, gastrointestinal bleeding, dehydration, infection), and in some patients, its course is characterized by frequent and severe relapses. In addition, hospitalized patients with overt HE have a 3.9-fold increased mortality risk. Patient management employs nonabsorbable disaccharides, the nonsystemic antibiotic rifaximin, or both, to treat acute HE episodes and prevent HE relapse. In open-label trials, use of the nonabsorbable disaccharide lactulose reduced the risk of overt HE recurrence in patients compared with no-lactulose control groups for ≤ a median of 14 months. In a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, rifaximin 550 mg twice daily was more effective in maintaining HE remission compared with placebo and was associated with a reduction in HE-related hospitalizations. Recent advances in treatment and preventative therapies may reduce the personal, societal, and economic impact of this disorder.

Peripheral and splanchnic indole and oxindole levels in cirrhotic patients: a study on the pathophysiology of hepatic encephalopathy

OBJECTIVES

Intestinal bacteria metabolize tryptophan into indole, which is then further metabolized into oxindole, a sedative compound putatively involved in the pathophysiology of hepatic encephalopathy (HE). The aim of this study was to measure indole and oxindole levels in patients with cirrhosis with or without HE and to establish whether an intestinal production and a hepatic metabolism of these substances exist.

METHODS

We studied 10 healthy subjects (controls) and 51 cirrhotic patients: 17 without HE, 14 with a minimal HE, 8 with overt HE, and 12 who had undergone a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) procedure. In the last group, blood was collected from the artery, and the portal and hepatic veins during TIPS construction and from the peripheral veins before, immediately after, and at weekly intervals during the first month after TIPS.

RESULTS

Plasma indole levels were significantly higher in patients with overt HE. Oxindole levels were higher in cirrhotics than in controls. Indole and ammonia were significantly correlated (r=0.66). Peripheral and splanchnic determinations showed that indole was produced in the intestine and cleared by the liver, similar to ammonia. TIPS implantation increased both indole and ammonia levels. After TIPS, the psychometric performance worsened in 4 of the 12 patients. The increase in indole plasma concentrations in these four patients was higher than in those who remained stable after undergoing TIPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Indole correlates with HE and has a significant intestinal production and hepatic extraction; its level increases after TIPS and is related to psychometric performance. These data suggest that indole may be involved in the pathophysiology of HE.

Clinical and pathological studies in cattle with hepatic disease

In cattle with hepatic lipidosis, hepatic abscessation, leptospirosis, biliary calculi or fasciolosis, the progression of the disease was studied by serial measurements of serum total bile acid concentrations, plasma glutamate dehydrogenase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, 5'-nucleotidase and leucine aminopeptidase activities Terminalia avicennioides and by liver biopsy. Regardless of the cause of the hepatic disease, weight loss, anorexia, dullness and depression were consistent features. Signs of hepatic encephalopathy, such as blindness, head pressing, excitability, ataxia and weakness were less common and, together with pyrexia and jaundice, were grave prognostic signs. Plasma ammonia concentrations were significantly elevated compared to clinically normal cattle, but such changes were not always accompanied by a decline in plasma urea concentrations. In normal, healthy cattle, the plasma ammonia:urea concentration ratio is 9:1 and the plasma ammonia:glucose concentration is 11:1. In hepatic disease, a plasma ammonia:glucose ratio > 40:1 or plasma ammonia:urea ratio > 30:1, particularly with a rising total ketone body concentration and a declining glucose concentration, carried a guarded prognosis. The study suggested that other factors, such as hypokalaemia, alkalosis, short-chain volatile fatty acids, and false and true neuro-transmitters, may be important in the pathogenesis of hepatic coma in cattle.

Clinical and pathological studies in horses with hepatic disease

In horses with hepatic necrosis, lipidosis, neoplasia and cirrhosis, progression of the disease was studied by serial measurements of total serum bile acid concentrations and of plasma glutamate dehydrogenase (GD) and gamma glutamyl transferase (gamma GT) and by liver biopsy. Plasma ammonia concentrations were significantly elevated compared to clinically normal horses, but such changes were not always accompanied by a decline in plasma urea concentration. A fall in plasma glucose concentration carried a guarded prognosis. These were all invaluable aids in early diagnosis and throughout the disease course. The study suggests that other factors, such as hypokalaemia, alkalosis, short chain volatile fatty acids, false and true neurotransmitters, may be important in the pathogenesis of hepatic coma in the horse.

Value of plasmapheresis in hepatic encephalopathy

Plasmapheresis is used for treating the complications of liver failure. We performed plasmapheresis on 6 children with hepatic encephalopathy resulting from acute hepatic failure and prospectively assessed its effects on neurologic and electrophysiologic (electroencephalography and evoked potentials) function. Clinical improvement was observed in 3 of 6 patients; changes in the serum ammonia value or the results of initial electrophysiologic tests did not predict the patient response. Two patients underwent transplantation after neurologic improvement was produced by plasmapheresis; however, despite plasmapheresis, 4 patients progressed to brain death. Our data demonstrate that plasmapheresis may transiently improve the encephalopathy of acute hepatic failure but is not curative alone. Therefore, plasmapheresis may be a useful adjunct in the treatment of liver failure, potentially improving the pretransplantation status of the patient.

Psychopharmacology in patients with hepatic and gastrointestinal disease

Psychotropic drugs often need to be prescribed to patients who also have pre-existing gastrointestinal (GI) and/or hepatic disease. This paper addresses the effect of GI and hepatic disease on the pharmacokinetics of psychotropic drugs, the effect of psychotropic drugs on pre-existing GI and hepatic diseases, the adverse GI and hepatic effects of psychotropic medications, the effects of GI medications on mental status, and the potential drug interactions between commonly prescribed GI medications and psychotropic drugs. Drug selection and dosage modification based on these considerations should allow safe and effective psychotropic treatment for patients with pre-existing GI and/or hepatic disease.

Effects of the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil in hepatic encephalopathy in humans

If increased gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated neurotransmission contributes to the mediation of hepatic encephalopathy, it may be possible to induce ameliorations of the syndrome by pharmacologically antagonizing a component of the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor complex. To test this possibility we administered the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil by intravenous injection to 14 patients with hepatic encephalopathy complicating cirrhosis. Flumazenil administration induced variable and transient, but distinct, improvements of the mental status in 71% of the patients. The degree of encephalopathy improved from stage IV to stage II in 4 patients and from stage IV to stage III in 2 patients. The mental status of all patients with less advanced encephalopathy (3 with stage III, 1 with stage II) also improved, but these responses were clinically less impressive. The arousal effect occurred within minutes after the injection and lasted for 1 to 2 h. Furthermore, it was associated with a significant increase of the mean electroencephalographic frequency from 4.2 to 5.2 cycle/s. Of the 8 patients who were ultimately discharged from the hospital, 7 had responded to flumazenil. No patient who died within 48 h of receiving flumazenil had shown any arousal effect. These findings strongly favor a prominent pathogenetic role of increased GABAergic tone in hepatic encephalopathy in humans and suggest that a positive response to flumazenil might be of prognostic value in predicting short-term survival in encephalopathic patients with liver disease.

Cerebral blood flow and plasma free tryptophan in cirrhotics with and without hepatic encephalopathy

Cerebral blood flow (CBF), measured by the non-invasive 133-Xenon inhalation method, plasma levels of ammonia (NH3) and free tryptophan (fTRP) were determined in 30 cirrhotic patients without overt encephalopathy. Psychometric evaluation detected subclinical hepatic encephalopathy (SHE) in 20 of them, and was normal in the other 10. A significant CBF difference (p less than 0.05) was found between the SHE and the non-SHE patients. fTRP levels were significantly (p less than 0.05) higher in patients with SHE than in those without SHE, and a significant negative correlation (p = 0.003) was found between CBF values and fTRP in the whole group of patients. NH3 did not differ in the two subgroups and did not correlate with CBF values. It is concluded that CBF could have some implications in SHE, although its relevance is still unclear. The negative correlation between CBF and fTRP prompts further investigation concerning the relationships between plasma fTRP, brain serotonin, cerebral metabolism and blood flow in the development of brain derangement during cirrhosis.

Autoradiographic analysis of GABA-benzodiazepine receptors in an animal model of acute hepatic encephalopathy

To complement analogous studies using conventional ligand-membrane binding assays, the densities of gamma-aminobutyric acid and benzodiazepine receptors in the brain have been assessed using an autoradiographic technique in an animal model of hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatic encephalopathy due to fulminant hepatic failure was induced in rabbits by the intravenous injection of galactosamine. The specific binding of three radiolabeled ligands was assessed densitometrically in several microregions of cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. [3H]Muscimol was used to assess gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor density and [3H]flunitrazepam or [3H]Ro 15-1788 was used to assess benzodiazepine receptor density. No significant differences were observed between the magnitude of binding of the three ligands to each of the microregions of brain from control rabbits and rabbits in Stage III or IV hepatic encephalopathy. These findings suggest that the behavioral expression of hepatic encephalopathy in the model studied is not dependent upon an increase in the number of gamma-aminobutyric acid or benzodiazepine receptors, but do not conflict with the hypothesis that gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic tone is increased in hepatic encephalopathy.

Hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotic and portacaval shunted dogs: lack of changes in brain GABA uptake, brain GABA levels, brain glutamic acid decarboxylase activity and brain postsynaptic GABA receptors

It has been suggested, from studies of a rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure, that hepatic encephalopathy might be related to an increase in brain gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake through a more permeable bloodbrain barrier, leading to an overactivity of brain gamma-aminobutyric acid-mediated inhibitory neurotransmission. Five groups of dogs were studied: normal dogs, dogs with secondary biliary cirrhosis without and with hepatic encephalopathy and portacaval shunted dogs without and with hepatic encephalopathy. Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid and sucrose uptake was investigated using the multiple indicator dilution curve technique in unanesthetized dogs. Tracer doses of 99mTc-labeled albumin (extracellular reference substance), 3H-labeled gamma-aminobutyric acid and 14C-labeled sucrose prepared in autologous dog plasma were injected in one carotid artery, and dorsal sagittal sinus dilution curves were obtained. Uptake was calculated by comparing the areas under the 99mTc-labeled albumin and the [3H]gamma-aminobutyric acid (or [14C]sucrose) curves from appearance to peak height. After killing, brain gamma-aminobutyric acid levels were measured in the frontal cortex by high-performance liquid chromatography and glutamic acid decarboxylase activities using a radioenzymatic assay. Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid postsynaptic receptors were assessed using [3H]muscimol binding studies. There were no significant changes in cirrhotic and shunted dogs with or without hepatic encephalopathy with regard to brain gamma-aminobutyric acid and sucrose uptake, brain gamma-aminobutyric acid levels and glutamic acid decarboxylase activities. [3H]Muscimol binding studies did not show any changes in the number nor in the affinity of postsynaptic gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and sepsis-related encephalopathy

In order to determine whether disturbances in GABA homeostasis might play a role in the pathogenesis of sepsis-related encephalopathy, serum and brain tissue GABA concentrations from six areas of the brain (cortex, diencephalon, striatum, hippocampus, midbrain, and pons-medulla) were determined in a rat model of bacterial sepsis (cecal ligation and perforation). The results were compared to those obtained from sham operated control animals. All septic animals demonstrated clinical signs of encephalopathy and had elevated serum GABA levels (0.92 +/- 0.3 uM versus 0.48 +/- 0.15 in controls, p less than 0.01). GABA content in the specific subcompartments of the brain, however, were similar in the two groups. These results indicate that although serum GABA levels are elevated during sepsis, GABA is unlikely to play an important role in the pathogenesis of sepsis-related encephalopathy.

Postdilution hemofiltration in the management of acute hepatic failure: a pilot study

We conducted a pilot study to assess the feasibility and efficacy of postdilution hemofiltration (PDHF) in the management of acute hepatic failure. From January 1984 through May 1986, we encountered seven patients with acute hepatic failure and entered these consecutive patients in the study; three had non-A, non-B hepatitis and one each had type B hepatitis, fulminant Wilson's disease (hepatolenticular degeneration), acute allograft (liver) failure, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Two of these seven patients were unable to undergo PDHF because of a precarious hemodynamic status. Of the five patients treated with PDHF, four had amelioration of hepatic encephalopathy; in two of these patients, a close temporal relationship was noted between the improvement and the procedure. Four patients had appreciable thrombocytopenia related to PDHF and bleeding complications. Our preliminary results support a possible role for PDHF as a temporary artificial liver support system for patients with acute hepatic failure.

Reduction of cerebral blood flow in subclinical hepatic encephalopathy and its correlation with plasma-free tryptophan

Cerebral blood flow (CBF), measured by the noninvasive xenon-133 inhalation method, EEG, and plasma levels of ammonia (NH3) and free tryptophan were determined in 18 hospitalized cirrhotic patients affected with subclinical hepatic encephalopathy, as diagnosed by the Kurtz test. CBF results were significantly lower (p less than 0.001) in the patients' group as compared with a sex- and age-matched normal control population, although seven patients had values in the normal range. NH3 was increased only in six, while free tryptophan was increased in all but two patients. A significant negative correlation (p = 0.02) between CBF and free tryptophan was found, even though it appears to be difficult to interpret. We suggest that CBF impairment in some cirrhotic patients with subclinical hepatic encephalopathy may be related to the systemic metabolic derangement caused by the liver disease; free tryptophan could have some implication in producing CBF reduction.

Evaluation of hepatobiliary disorders in the horse

This article addresses clinical problems that present in equine liver disease. It also discusses the variety of laboratory tests available to the clinician that can differentiate the type and degree of liver dysfunction. This is followed by a more specific discussion regarding unique features of equine bilirubin and bile acid metabolism.

Amelioration of hepatic encephalopathy by pharmacologic antagonism of the GABAA-benzodiazepine receptor complex in a rabbit model of fulminant hepatic failure

Three separate, but allosterically interacting, sites on the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) supramolecular complex in the brain were pharmacologically blocked in rabbits with hepatic encephalopathy due to galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatic failure to determine whether decreased GABAergic neurotransmission can ameliorate the syndrome of hepatic encephalopathy. Bicuculline (a GABAA receptor blocker), Ro 15-1788 (a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist), or isopropylbicyclophosphate (a chloride channel blocker) consistently induced a transient but unequivocal decrease in the clinical severity of the encephalopathy and also corrected the abnormal pattern of the visual evoked response associated with hepatic encephalopathy. Rabbits with hepatic encephalopathy exhibited increased resistance to the convulsive effects of bicuculline. In encephalopathies induced in rabbits by gamma-vinyl-GABA (an inhibitor of GABA catabolism) or diazepam (a benzodiazepine receptor agonist), abnormalities of the visual evoked response similar to those found in hepatic encephalopathy occurred and were corrected by bicuculline and Ro 15-1788, respectively. These findings suggest that in hepatic encephalopathy due to fulminant hepatic failure (a) there is increased GABAergic tone, (b) an amelioration of encephalopathy can be induced by blockade of GABA or benzodiazepine receptors, (c) benzodiazepine receptor antagonists may be of clinical value in the management of hepatic encephalopathy, and (d) an endogenous substance with GABA potentiating properties may be present in hepatic encephalopathy.

Electron microscopic evaluation of brain edema in rabbits with galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatic failure: ultrastructure and integrity of the blood-brain barrier

Brain edema is a major complication of fulminant hepatic failure and is responsible for death in a large percentage of patients. We previously demonstrated the progressive accumulation of water in grey matter areas of the brain in the rabbit with galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatic failure. We now report the electron microscopic morphology of the brain in the same model of acute hepatic failure following the intravenous injection of horseradish peroxidase, an intravascular tracer which forms an electron-dense reaction product. Rabbits with both mild and severe encephalopathy had normal blood pressures and blood gases at the time of study. Fixation of brain tissue was obtained by whole-body perfusion. Marked swelling of the cytoplasm, perineuronal and perivascular processes of astrocytes were noted in cortical gray, but not white, matter areas; the other cellular components of the brain had normal morphology. Capillary endothelial cells were normal, and there was no evidence of horseradish peroxidase in endothelial cell vesicles, basement membranes or the brain parenchyma, suggesting that the blood-brain barrier was impermeable to large molecules. Histologic evidence of brain edema is seen in this model, with swelling of astrocytes as the primary manifestation of the accumulation of water. Damage to astrocytes or inhibition of their function may contribute to the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy in this model.

Transient visual loss in ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency

We examined a 32-year-old, previously healthy man who developed episodic bilateral visual impairment and confusion. Coincident hyperammonemia led to the diagnosis of ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency, which was established by enzymatic analysis of a liver biopsy specimen. The available data were insufficient to determine if the metabolic derangement impaired vision at the level of the optic nerves or at the cerebral level.

Hepatic encephalopathy: lack of changes of gamma-aminobutyric acid content in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid

The aim of the study was to verify the role of gamma-aminobutyric acid in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy occurring in cirrhotic patients by attempting to correlate plasma and cerebrospinal fluid content of authentic gamma-aminobutyric acid with the neurological manifestations of hepatic encephalopathy. For this purpose, plasma and cerebrospinal fluid gamma-aminobutyric acid levels were measured by means of mass fragmentography in 17 cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy and in 6 cirrhotics without neurological symptoms. Moreover, in all patients, a second sample was obtained during the clinical course of hepatic encephalopathy. The mean plasma and cerebrospinal fluid gamma-aminobutyric acid levels were not different in patients with or without hepatic encephalopathy and did not change during the evolution of the neurological symptoms. The lack of changes in the gamma-aminobutyric acid content in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid during hepatic encephalopathy is in contrast with the hypothesized importance of increased entry into the brain of gamma-aminobutyric acid in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy.

Surgery in the patient with liver disease

This article deals with the effects of anesthesia and surgery on the healthy and diseased liver and the preoperative assessment of patients with liver disease. Emphasis is placed on estimating surgical risk. Guidelines for optimal preoperative preparation are discussed.

Hepatic encephalopathy. Application of visual evoked responses to test hypotheses of its pathogenesis in rats

A previous study of the patterns of visual evoked responses (VERs) in rats was interpreted as providing support for the synergistic neurotoxins hypothesis of the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) due to fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). In contrast, other studies of the patterns of VERs in rabbits with different encephalopathies were interpreted as providing support for the concept that increased GABA-ergic tone may contribute to the neural inhibition of HE due to FHF. To attempt to resolve the discordant findings in these studies, additional studies of VERs have been undertaken in rats. To induce increased tissue levels of ammonia, mercaptans and fatty acids which are found in HE due to FHF, carefully predetermined doses of urease, dimethyldisulphide and octanoic acid were administered. The (pre-seizure) encephalopathy induced by these three agents was associated with abnormalities of the VER waveform that were fundamentally different from the abnormalities of the VER waveform associated with HE due to thioacetamide-induced FHF. However, the VER waveform in this model of HE due to FHF resembled closely that associated with pentobarbital-induced encephalopathy. These findings are in satisfactory agreement with those in the previous analogous studies in rabbits. They do not provide support for the synergistic neurotoxins hypothesis of the pathogenesis of HE, but are entirely consistent with increased GABA-ergic tone contributing to the neural inhibition of HE due to FHF.

The role of astrocytes in hepatic encephalopathy

The Alzheimer type II astrocyte change is the distinctive morphologic alteration in brain of humans and experimental animals succumbing to hepatic encephalopathy (HE). Whether this change is a primary event in the pathogenesis of HE or whether it is secondary to injury of some other component(s) of the CNS has not been clarified. Studies in a rat model of HE have revealed early reactive changes in astrocytes characterized by cytoplasmic hypertrophy. During the later phases, degenerative changes ensue corresponding to the Alzheimer type II change observed by light microscopy. In view of the role of astrocytes in ammonia detoxification and the importance of ammonia in the pathogenesis of HE, we have suggested that the initial astrocytic changes are the morphological correlates of ammonia detoxification. We have speculated that the later degenerative alterations could lead to failure by astrocytes to carry out key functions (e.g., neurotransmitter uptake, ion regulation, and the like) and contribute the development of the encephalopathy. Recently, the potential involvement of astrocytes in HE has been further investigated, using primary astrocyte cultures. Exposure of cultures to ammonia at clinically relevant concentrations has shown morphologic changes closely resembling those observed in experimental HE in vivo. These deleterious effects can partly be prevented by raising cyclic AMP levels in cells. Other potential toxins (octanoic acid, phenol) have shown pathologic changes as well. Although some alterations were common to all three, they each possessed distinctive pathological effects. A synergistic interaction has also been demonstrated with these toxins. Functional studies of ammonia-treated astrocytes have shown the following: With low doses or short-term exposure, the uptakes of K+, glutamate, and GABA remained unchanged or slightly increased, whereas with higher doses or longer treatment, those activities diminished. A fall in ATP values occurred with prolonged ammonia treatment. Preliminary findings have shown no significant derangements in the beta-adrenergic receptor, except for a slight decrease in receptor affinity. However, cyclic AMP production was diminished following stimulation with isoproterenol. A slight rise in the number of benzodiazepine receptors was found. These studies indicate that profound changes occur in astrocytes following exposure to ammonia and other putative toxins. It is proposed that toxins and factors involved in the precipitation of HE do so by affecting astroglial properties. Derangements in such properties may lead to glial dysfunction (primary gliopathy), resulting in an encephalopathic state.

Brain edema in rabbits with galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatitis. Regional differences and effects on intracranial pressure

Brain edema and intracranial hypertension are major complications of fulminant hepatic failure. We investigated the development of brain edema and monitored intracranial pressure in rabbits with toxic hepatitis induced by galactosamine. Using a gravimetric technique to assay small tissue samples, we found that brain water was increased in cortical grey matter, but not in subcortical, mesencephalic, and pontine white matter, or in the cerebellum. The proportion of water in cerebral grey matter in control animals was 80.96% +/- 0.49% with significant elevations to 81.96% +/- 0.47% and 82.95% +/- 1.49% in mild and severe encephalopathy, respectively. This corresponds to mean increases in tissue volume of 5.5% and 11.7%. The hippocampal grey matter also accumulated water in severe encephalopathy with a 30% increase in mean tissue volume. The regional increase in brain water was confirmed by the wet-dry weight method. Neither hypotension, hypoxia, nor severe hypoglycemia were present to account for the edema. Intracranial pressure was monitored continuously in unanesthetized rabbits via an intraventricular cannula as encephalopathy developed. The pressure was normal in the mild stage, but was intermittently elevated in animals with severe encephalopathy. The normal range of intracranial pressure was 2-9 mmHg and the range of peak values in galactosamine-treated rabbits was 18-55 mmHg. The regional differences in brain water accumulation suggest that cellular swelling and abnormalities in the movement of water across the blood-brain barrier may account for the brain edema in this model.

Increase in the content of quinolinic acid in cerebrospinal fluid and frontal cortex of patients with hepatic failure

Quinolinic acid (QUIN), an excitotoxic tryptophan metabolite, has been identified and measured in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) using a mass-fragmentographic method. Furthermore, its content has been evaluated in frontal cortex obtained at autopsy from the cadavers of patients who died after hepatic coma. During the coma, the concentration of QUIN in the CSF was 152 +/- 38 pmol ml-1. In contrast, the concentration in control patients affected by different pathologies was 22 +/- 7 pmol ml-1. In the frontal cortex of patients who died after episodes of hepatic encephalopathy, the content of QUIN was three times higher than in controls (2.6 +/- 0.6 versus 0.80 +/- 0.08 nmol/g wet weight). As a result of these investigations we are now able to extend our previous observations on the increase of QUIN in the brains of rats used as experimental models of hepatic encephalopathy to man. QUIN should therefore be added to the list of compounds possibly involved in the pathogenesis and symptomatology of brain disorders associated with liver failure.

Brain cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: immunoreactivity in rabbits with hepatic coma

Recent studies have suggested that decreased excitatory neurotransmission in the brain may contribute to the overall neural inhibition which characterizes the syndrome of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and that vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and cholecystokinin (CCK) may promote neural excitation in the brain. To determine if brain levels of these neuropeptides are altered in HE, measurements were made of the concentrations of immunoreactive VIP (iVIP) and immunoreactive CCK (iCCK) in cerebral cortex, cerebellum and hypothalamus isolated from normal rabbits and rabbits with galactosamin-induced hepatic coma. Hepatic coma was associated with reduced concentrations of iVIP, small molecular weight iCCK and large molecular weight iCCK in the cerebral cortex but not in the cerebellum or hypothalamus. These findings are compatible with decreased VIP- and CCK-mediated neural excitation occurring in the syndrome of HE.

In vivo studies of GABAergic effects in experimental hepatic encephalopathy

The GABAergic agonist, muscimol, and antagonists, picrotoxin and bicuculline, have been studied in rats with chronic portacaval shunts and in rats developing hepatic encephalopathy after massive ischemic necrosis due to hepatic artery ligation within 48 hr of a portacaval shunt. After the chronic portacaval shunt and to a lesser extent in normal rats intraventricular muscimol resulted in chewing and eating behavior, ataxia and loss of balance that lasted 2 to 3 hr. Lethargy, stupor and coma did not occur. Intraventricular saline had no effect. Bicuculline i.p. lessened the effects of the muscimol. In rats developing hepatic encephalopathy, intraventricular muscimol shortened the time to precoma and coma by approximately 40%. Bicuculline i.p. counteracted this effect of muscimol significantly. However, neither bicuculline nor picrotoxin given alone altered the times to precoma (Stage III), coma (Stage IV) or death. While hepatic encephalopathy in this experimental model is susceptible to GABAergic effects, its natural progression does not appear to be due to GABA.

Portal-systemic encephalopathy and hepatic coma

Decompensation in the cirrhotic patient is typically manifested as hepatic encephalopathy or coma. This may be precipitated by azotemia, gastrointestinal bleeding, infection, hypokalemic alkalosis, excess dietary protein, or the use of sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic medications. The pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy associated with portal-systemic shunting is unknown, but theories purporting major roles for ammonia, AAAs, false neurotransmitters, and GABA have been advanced. Treatment is aimed at removing precipitating factors and eliminating nitrogenous substances from the gastrointestinal tract.

Cerebral glucose metabolism after portacaval shunting in the rat. Patterns of metabolism and implications for the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy

The regional cerebral metabolic rate for glucose was measured in normal and portacaval shunted rats and the effects of unilateral carotid infusions of "threshold" amounts of ammonia were assessed. 8 wk after shunting the glucose metabolic rate was increased in all 20 brain regions sampled. Effects on subcortical and phylogenetically older regions of the brain were most pronounced with a 74% increase observed in the reticular formation at the collicular level. Increases in the cerebral cortex ranged from 12 to 18%. Unilateral infusions of ammonia did not affect behavior but altered the electroencephalogram and selectively increased the glucose metabolic rate in the thalamus, hypothalamus, and substantia nigra in half of the animals, a pattern similar to that seen after a portacaval shunt, suggesting hyperammonemia as the cause of postshunt increases in glucose metabolism. Visual inspection of autoradiograms, computed correlation coefficients relating interregional metabolism, and principal component analysis suggest that normal cerebral metabolic and functional interrelationships are altered by shunting. Ammonia stimulation of the hypothalamic satiety centers may suppress appetite and lead to cachexia. Reductions in the ammonia detoxification capacity of skeletal muscle may increase the probability of developing future episodes of hyperammonemia, perpetuating the process. Direct effects of ammonia on specific brain centers such as the dorsomedial hypothalamus and reticular activating system may combine with global disruptions of cerebral metabolic-functional relationships to produce the protean manifestations of portal-systemic encephalopathy.

Branched chain amino acid therapy in liver disease

Patients with hepatic cirrhosis often are malnourished and wasted. If portal-systemic encephalopathy (PSE) develops, restriction of dietary protein in an attempt to treat encephalopathy may further promote negative nitrogen balance. There is considerable interest in providing nutritional supplements to patients with cirrhosis and PSE which would lead to improvement in nitrogen balance while improving or at least not worsening PSE. Amino acid supplements designed to correct the abnormal amino acid pattern characteristically found in patients with cirrhosis and PSE are under investigation as potential therapeutic agents. The levels of the branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) are decreased in almost all patients with cirrhosis and PSE. The exact mechanism for the reductions in BCAA concentrations is unknown. Furthermore, aromatic amino acids (AAA) and methionine (MET) concentrations are usually increased in these patients. It has been suggested that BCAAs and neutral amino acids compete for transport across the blood-brain barrier and that a decrease in BCAA concentrations promotes entrance of neutral amino acids into the brain. Aromatic amino acids, MET, and their derivatives may have a role in the production of PSE. These observations have increased interest in the potential therapeutic benefit of administering BCAAs to patients with cirrhosis and PSE in order to decrease the entrance of putative toxins into the brain. Treatment trials using BCAAs alone or in solutions containing other amino acids in patients with cirrhosis and PSE have given conflicting results. In one trial, there appeared to be less PSE induced by a BCAA-enriched solution when compared to equinitrogenous dietary protein. However, other controlled studies have not demonstrated any advantage to the addition of BCAAs as compared to placebo with regards to reducing mortality or improving cerebral function in patients with acute cirrhosis and PSE. Some of the differences in study outcomes may relate to the patient population evaluated; the type, amount, and duration of treatment; and whether other therapy was administered. BCAA supplements may also be useful in minimizing or reversing the catabolic state characteristic of patients with cirrhosis. A reduction of increased urinary 3-methylhistidine excretion by infusions of BCAAs in cirrhotic patients suggests an anticatabolic effect. These potential anticatabolic effects of BCAAs are most interesting and deserve further study.