Assembly of Protein Stacks With in Situ Synthesized Nanoparticle Cargo

Assembly and Functionality of 2D Protein Arrays

Among the unique classes of 2D nanomaterials, 2D protein arrays garner increasing attention due to their remarkable structural stability, exceptional physiochemical properties, and tunable electronic and mechanical attributes. The interest in mimicking and surpassing the precise architecture and advanced functionality of natural protein systems drives the field of 2D protein assembly toward the development of sophisticated functional materials. Recent advancements deepen the understanding of the fundamental principles governing 2D protein self-assembly, accelerating the creation of novel functional biomaterials. These developments encompass biological, chemical, and templated strategies, facilitating the self-organization of proteins into highly ordered and intricate 2D patterns. Consequently, these 2D protein arrays create new opportunities for integrating diverse components, from small molecules to nanoparticles, thereby enhancing the performance and versatility of materials in various applications. This review comprehensively assesses the current state of 2D protein nanotechnology, highlighting the latest methodologies for directing protein assembly into precise 2D architectures. The transformative potential of 2D protein assemblies in designing next-generation biomaterials, particularly in areas such as biomedicine, catalysis, photosystems, and membrane filtration is also emphasized.

Hierarchical peroxiredoxin assembly through orthogonal pH-response and electrostatic interactions

Morpheeins are proteins that adapt their morphology and function to the environment. Therefore, their use in nanotechnology opens up the bottom-up preparation of anisotropic metamaterials, based on the sequential use of different stimuli. A prominent member of this family of proteins is peroxiredoxins (Prx), with dual peroxidase and chaperone function, depending on the pH of the media. At high pH, they show a toroidal morphology that turns into tubular stacks upon acidification. While the toroidal conformers have been explored as building blocks to yield 1D and 2D structures, the obtention of higher ordered materials remain unexplored. In this research, the morpheein behaviour of Prx is exploited to yield columnar aggregates, that are subsequently self-assembled into 3D anisotropic bundles. This is achieved by electrostatic recognition between the negatively charged protein rim and a positively charged porphyrin acting as molecular glue. The subsequent and orthogonal input lead to the alignment of the monodimensional stacks side-by-side, leading to the precise assembly of this anisotropic materials.

Unnaturally Distorted Hexagonal Protein Ring Alternatingly Reorganized from Two Distinct Chemically Modified Proteins

In this study, we constructed a semiartificial protein assembly of alternating ring type, which was modified from the natural assembly state via incorporation of a synthetic component at the protein interface. For the redesign of a natural protein assembly, a scrap-and-build approach employing chemical modification was used. Two different protein dimer units were designed based on peroxiredoxin from Thermococcus kodakaraensis, which originally forms a dodecameric hexagonal ring with six homodimers. The two dimeric mutants were reorganized into a ring by reconstructing the protein-protein interactions via synthetic naphthalene moieties introduced by chemical modification. Cryo-electron microscopy revealed the formation of a uniquely shaped dodecameric hexagonal protein ring with broken symmetry, distorted from the regular hexagon of the wild-type protein. The artificially installed naphthalene moieties were arranged at the interfaces of dimer units, forming two distinct protein-protein interactions, one of which is highly unnatural. This study deciphered the potential of the chemical modification technique that constructs semiartificial protein structures and assembly hardly accessible by conventional amino acid mutations.

1D Colloidal chains: recent progress from formation to emergent properties and applications

Integrating nanoscale building blocks of low dimensionality (0D; i.e., spheres) into higher dimensional structures endows them and their corresponding materials with emergent properties non-existent or only weakly existent in the individual building blocks. Constructing 1D chains, 2D arrays and 3D superlattices using nanoparticles and colloids therefore continues to be one of the grand goals in colloid and nanomaterial science. Amongst these higher order structures, 1D colloidal chains are of particular interest, as they possess unique anisotropic properties. In recent years, the most relevant advances in 1D colloidal chain research have been made in novel synthetic methodologies and applications. In this review, we first address a comprehensive description of the research progress concerning various synthetic strategies developed to construct 1D colloidal chains. Following this, we highlight the amplified and emergent properties of the resulting materials, originating from the assembly of the individual building blocks and their collective behavior, and discuss relevant applications in advanced materials. In the discussion of synthetic strategies, properties, and applications, particular attention will be paid to overarching concepts, fresh trends, and potential areas of future research. We believe that this comprehensive review will be a driver to guide the interdisciplinary field of 1D colloidal chains, where nanomaterial synthesis, self-assembly, physical property studies, and material applications meet, to a higher level, and open up new research opportunities at the interface of classical disciplines.

Protein Assembly by Design

Proteins are nature's primary building blocks for the construction of sophisticated molecular machines and dynamic materials, ranging from protein complexes such as photosystem II and nitrogenase that drive biogeochemical cycles to cytoskeletal assemblies and muscle fibers for motion. Such natural systems have inspired extensive efforts in the rational design of artificial protein assemblies in the last two decades. As molecular building blocks, proteins are highly complex, in terms of both their three-dimensional structures and chemical compositions. To enable control over the self-assembly of such complex molecules, scientists have devised many creative strategies by combining tools and principles of experimental and computational biophysics, supramolecular chemistry, inorganic chemistry, materials science, and polymer chemistry, among others. Owing to these innovative strategies, what started as a purely structure-building exercise two decades ago has, in short order, led to artificial protein assemblies with unprecedented structures and functions and protein-based materials with unusual properties. Our goal in this review is to give an overview of this exciting and highly interdisciplinary area of research, first outlining the design strategies and tools that have been devised for controlling protein self-assembly, then describing the diverse structures of artificial protein assemblies, and finally highlighting the emergent properties and functions of these assemblies.

Construction of ferritin hydrogels utilizing subunit-subunit interactions

Various proteins form nanostructures exhibiting unique functions, making them attractive as next-generation materials. Ferritin is a hollow spherical protein that incorporates iron ions. Here, we found that hydrogels are simply formed from concentrated apoferritin solutions by acid denaturation and subsequent neutralization. The water content of the hydrogel was approximately 80%. The apoferritin hydrogel did not decompose in the presence of 1 M HCl, 2-mercaptoethanol, or methanol but was dissolved in the presence of 1 M NaOH, by heating at 80°C, or by treatment with trypsin or 6 M guanidine hydrochloride. The Young’s modulus of the hydrogel was 20.4 ± 12.1 kPa according to local indentation experimentes using atomic force microscopy, indicating that the hydrogel was relatively stiff. Transition electron microscopy measurements revealed that a fibrous network was constructed in the hydrogel. The color of the hydrogel became yellow-brown upon incubation in the presence of Fe³⁺ ions, indicating that the hydrogel adsorbed the Fe³⁺ ions. The yellow-brown color of the Fe³⁺-adsorbed hydrogel did not change upon incubation in pure water, whereas it became pale by incubating it in the presence of 100 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). The apoferritin hydrogel also adsorbed Co²⁺ and Cu²⁺ ions and released them in the presence of EDTA, while it adsorbed less Ni²⁺ ions; more Fe³⁺ ions adsorbed to the apoferritin hydrogel than other metal ions, indicating that the hydrogel keeps the iron storage characteristic of ferritin. These results demonstrate a new property of ferritin: the ability to form a hydrogel that can adsorb/desorb metal ions, which may be useful in designing future biomaterials.

Virus-Based Supramolecular Structure and Materials: Concept and Prospects

Rodlike and spherelike viruses are various monodisperse nanoparticles that can display small molecules or polymers with unique distribution following chemical modifications. Because of the monodisperse property, aggregates in synthetic protein-polymer nanoparticles could be eliminated, thus improving the probability for application in protein-polymer drug. In addition, the monodisperse virus could direct the growth of metal materials or inorganic materials, finding applications in hydrogel, drug delivery, and optoelectronic and catalysis materials. Benefiting from the advantages, the virus or viruslike particles have been widely explored in the field of supramolecular chemistry. In this review, we describe the modification and application of virus and viruslike particles in surpramolecular structures and biomedical research.

Peroxiredoxins wear many hats: Factors that fashion their peroxide sensing personalities

Peroxiredoxins (Prdxs) sense and assess peroxide levels, and signal through protein interactions. Understanding the role of the multiple structural and post-translational modification (PTM) layers that tunes the peroxiredoxin specificities is still a challenge. In this review, we give a tabulated overview on what is known about human and bacterial peroxiredoxins with a focus on structure, PTMs, and protein-protein interactions. Armed with numerous cellular and atomic level experimental techniques, we look at the future and ask ourselves what is still needed to give us a clearer view on the cellular operating power of Prdxs in both stress and non-stress conditions.

Recent Advances in Bio-Templated Metallic Nanomaterial Synthesis and Electrocatalytic Applications

Developing metallic nanocatalysts with high reaction activity, selectivity and practical durability is a promising and active subfield in electrocatalysis. In the classical "bottom-up" approach to synthesize stable nanomaterials by chemical reduction, stabilizing additives such as polymers or organic surfactants must be present to cap the nanoparticle to prevent material bulk aggregation. In recent years, biological systems have emerged as green alternatives to support the uncoated inorganic components. One key advantage of biological templates is their inherent ability to produce nanostructures with controllable composition, facet, size and morphology under ecologically friendly synthetic conditions, which are difficult to achieve with traditional inorganic synthesis. In addition, through genetic engineering or bioconjugation, bio-templates can provide numerous possibilities for surface functionalization to incorporate specific binding sites for the target metals. Therefore, in bio-templated systems, the electrocatalytic performance of the formed nanocatalyst can be tuned by precisely controlling the material surface chemistry. With controlled improvements in size, morphology, facet exposure, surface area and electron conductivity, bio-inspired nanomaterials often exhibit enhanced catalytic activity towards electrode reactions. In this Review, recent research developments are presented in bio-approaches for metallic nanomaterial synthesis and their applications in electrocatalysis for sustainable energy storage and conversion systems.

Taking Advantage of the Morpheein Behavior of Peroxiredoxin in Bionanotechnology

Morpheeins are proteins that reversibly assemble into different oligomers, whose architectures are governed by conformational changes of the subunits. This property could be utilized in bionanotechnology where the building of nanometric and new high-ordered structures is required. By capitalizing on the adaptability of morpheeins to create patterned structures and exploiting their inborn affinity toward inorganic and living matter, “bottom-up” creation of nanostructures could be achieved using a single protein building block, which may be useful as such or as scaffolds for more complex materials. Peroxiredoxins represent the paradigm of a morpheein that can be applied to bionanotechnology. This review describes the structural and functional transitions that peroxiredoxins undergo to form high-order oligomers, e.g., rings, tubes, particles, and catenanes, and reports on the chemical and genetic engineering approaches to employ them in the generation of responsive nanostructures and nanodevices. The usefulness of the morpheeins’ behavior is emphasized, supporting their use in future applications.

Rebuilding Ring-Type Assembly of Peroxiredoxin by Chemical Modification

Direct control of the protein quaternary structure (QS) is challenging owing to the complexity of the protein structure. As a protein with a characteristic QS, peroxiredoxin from Aeropyrum pernix K1 (ApPrx) forms a decamer, wherein five dimers associate to form a ring. Here, we disrupted and reconstituted ApPrx QS via amino acid mutations and chemical modifications targeting hot spots for protein assembly. The decameric QS of an ApPrx* mutant, wherein all cysteine residues in wild-type ApPrx were mutated to serine, was destructed to dimers via an F80C mutation. The dimeric ApPrx*F80C mutant was then modified with a small molecule and successfully assembled as a decamer. Structural analysis confirmed that an artificially installed chemical moiety potentially facilitates suitable protein-protein interactions to rebuild a native structure. Rebuilding of dodecamer was also achieved through an additional amino acid mutation. This study describes a facile method to regulate the protein assembly state.

Switching between Stacked Toroids and Helical Supramolecular Polymers in Aqueous Nanotubules

Although significant advances have been made in supramolecular tubules, reversible polymerization in the tubular walls while maintaining their intact structure remains a great challenge. Here, reversible helical supramolecular polymerization of stacked toroids is reported, while maintaining tubular structures in aqueous solution. At room temperature, the tubules consist of discrete toroid stackings with hydrophobic interior. Upon heating, the tubules based on toroid stackings undergo a reversible helical supramolecular polymerization to transform into helical tubules by interconnecting between spirally open toroids. The helical polymerization arises from a tilting transition of the closed toroids that transform into spirally open toroids driven by the thermal dehydration of a hydrophilic oligoether dendron surrounding the toroid frameworks.

Introduction to Protein Nanotechnology

Protein nanotechnology research is at the intersection of protein biology and nanotechnology. Protein molecules are repurposed as nanostructures and nanoscaffolds, and nanoscale tools are used to investigate protein assembly and function. In this chapter, a select review is given of some of the recent examples of protein nanostructures, covering both those directly borrowed from biology and those designed for use in nanotechnology. It updates the introductory chapter to Edition 2 of this volume to reflect significant progress in this field. Some strategies to incorporate protein structures into devices are also covered, with the successes and challenges of this interdisciplinary field identified. This provides an overarching framework for the rest of the volume, which details the case studies of some of the protein building blocks that have been designed and produced, along with tips and tools for their incorporation into devices and making functional measurements.

Peroxiredoxin Proteins as Building Blocks for Nanotechnology

Peroxiredoxins are ubiquitous antioxidant proteins that exhibit a striking variety of quaternary structures, making them appealing building blocks with which nanoscale architectures are created for applications in nanotechnology. The solution environment of the protein, as well as protein sequence, influences the presentation of a particular structure, thereby enabling mesoscopic manipulations that affect arrangments at the nanoscale. This chapter will equip us with the knowledge necessary to not only produce and manipulate peroxiredoxin proteins into desired structures but also to characterize the different structures using dynamic light scattering, analytical centrifugation, and negative stain transmission electron microscopy, thereby setting the stage for us to use these proteins for applications in nanotechnology.

Highly ordered protein cage assemblies: A toolkit for new materials

Protein capsids are specialized and versatile natural macromolecules with exceptional properties. Their homogenous, spherical, rod-like or toroidal geometry, and spatially directed functionalities make them intriguing building blocks for self-assembled nanostructures. High degrees of functionality and modifiability allow for their assembly via non-covalent interactions, such as electrostatic and coordination bonding, enabling controlled self-assembly into higher-order structures. These assembly processes are sensitive to the molecules used and the surrounding conditions, making it possible to tune the chemical and physical properties of the resultant material and generate multifunctional and environmentally sensitive systems. These materials have numerous potential applications, including catalysis and drug delivery. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Nanodot-Directed Formation of Plasmonic-Fluorescent Nanohybrids toward Dual Optical Detection of Glucose and Cholesterol via Hydrogen Peroxide Sensing

Hybrid nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as an important class of nanomaterials owing to their integrated enhanced properties and functionality. In this study, we have developed an effective nanodot templating strategy for the in situ formation of surfactant-free nanohybrids with unique plasmonic-fluorescent properties. A bright photoluminescent biodot synthesized from serine and histamine biomolecular precursors (Ser-Hist dot) was first engineered to have rich functional groups on the nanosurface capable of anchoring Ag⁺ ions via electrostatic interaction. Upon UV irradiation, free electrons could transfer from the photoexcited Ser-Hist dot to the Ag⁺ ions, facilitating the in situ growth of AgNPs. The resulting nanohybrid system (Bio@AgNPs) exhibits distinct characteristic surface plasmon resonance absorbance and highly quenched PL intensity due to the inner filter effect. Furthermore, the Bio@AgNP nanohybrid retains its redox capability, enabling hydrogen peroxide sensing via AgNP etching, which in turn empowers a dual colorimetric and fluorescent detection of glucose and cholesterol in complex biological samples (i.e., synthetic urine and human plasma) with high selectivity and sensitivity. This finding reveals a new effective and facile method for the preparation of highly functional hybrid nanomaterials for dual-mode detection of hydrogen peroxide-producing species and/or reactions.

Role of Gluten in Surface Chemistry: Nanometallic Bioconjugation of Hard, Medium, and Soft Wheat Protein

Hard, medium, and soft wheat proteins, based on gluten content, were studied for their important roles in nanometallic surface chemistry. In situ synthesis of Au nanoparticles (NPs) was followed to determine the surface adsorption behavior of wheat protein based on the gluten contents. A greater amount of gluten contents facilitated the nucleation to produce Au NPs. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) surface analysis clearly showed the surface adsorption of protein on nanometallic surfaces which was almost equally prevalent for the hard, medium, and soft wheat proteins. Wheat protein conjugated NPs were highly susceptible to phase transfer from aqueous to organic phase that was entirely related to the amount of gluten contents. The presence of higher gluten content in hard wheat protein readily enabled the hard wheat protein conjugated NPs to move across the aqueous-organic interface followed by medium and soft wheat protein conjugated NPs. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS page) analysis allowed us to determine molar masses of nanometallic surface adsorbed protein fractions. Only two protein fractions of high molar masses (74 and 85 kDa) from SDS solubilized hard, medium, and soft wheat proteins preferred to adsorb on nanometallic surfaces out of more than 15 protein fractions of pure wheat protein. This made the surface adsorption of wheat protein highly selective and closely related to gluten content. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) solubilized wheat protein conjugated NPs demonstrated their strong antimicrobial activities against both Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria making them suitable for their applications in food industry.

Engineering peroxiredoxin 3 to facilitate control over self-assembly

Oligomeric proteins are abundant in nature and are useful for a range of nanotechnological applications; however, a key requirement in using these proteins is controlling when and how they form oligomeric assemblies. Often, protein oligomerisation is triggered by various cellular signals, allowing for controllable oligomerisation. An example of this is human peroxiredoxin 3 (Prx), a stable protein that natively forms dimers, dodecameric rings, stacks, and tubes in response to a range of environmental stimuli. Although we know the key environmental stimuli for switching between different oligomeric states of Prx, we still have limited molecular knowledge and control over the formation and size of the protein's stacks and tubes. Here, we have generated a range of Prx mutants with either a decreased or knocked out ability to stack, and used both imaging and solution studies to show that Prx stacks through electrostatic interactions that are stabilised by a hydrogen bonding network. Furthermore, we show that altering the length of the polyhistidine tag will alter the length of the Prx stacks, with longer polyhistidine tags giving longer stacks. Finally, we have analysed the effect a variety of heavy metals have on the oligomeric state of Prx, wherein small transition metals like nickel enhances Prx stacking, while larger positively charged metals like tungstate ions can prevent Prx stacking. This work provides further structural characterisation of Prx, to enhance its use as a platform from which to build protein nanostructures for a variety of applications.