Bcl-2 prevents Bax oligomerization in the mitochondrial outer membrane

The diabetes medication Canagliflozin attenuates alcoholic liver disease by reducing hepatic lipid accumulation via SIRT1-AMPK-mTORC1 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chronic consumption of large amounts of alcohol can lead to hepatic lipid accumulation and mitochondrial oxidative stress, resulting in alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Canagliflozin (Cana), an oral antidiabetic drug, regulates blood glucose by inhibiting sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 in renal tubulars, which also improves lipid metabolism and alleviates oxidative stress in hepatocyte. This study aims to determine the therapeutic effects of Cana on alcoholic liver injury and to explore the mechanistic pathways involved.

METHODS

C57BL/6J male mice at 8 weeks were used to construct a model of alcoholic fatty liver disease using the chronic-plus-binge alcohol feeding model. Primary hepatocytes and AML12 cell lines were used as in vitro models. The effects and mechanisms of Cana on alcoholic liver injury were investigated by using immunofluorescence, ELISA, H&E and Oil Red O staining, RT-PCR, and western blotting analysis.

RESULTS

Cana treatment reduced hepatic lipid accumulation, decreased glutathione and TNF-α levels, alleviated oxidative stress and inflammation. Mechanistic studies revealed that Cana reduced FAS expression in the liver, decreasing hepatic fatty acid synthesis, and increased PPARα expression, promoting fatty acid oxidation. Additionally, Cana increased mitochondrial content and promoted mitophagy. These effects were mediated by the SIRT1-AMPK-mTORC1 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Cana activates the SIRT1-AMPK-mTORC1 signaling pathway, inhibiting alcohol-induced fatty acid synthesis, promoting fatty acid degradation, thereby alleviating alcoholic liver injury.

Withania somnifera-derived phytochemicals as Bcl-B inhibitors in cancer therapy: A computational approach from byte to bench to bedside

Cancer is the second foremost cause of fatalities associated with non-communicable diseases across the globe, affecting multiple organs and often necessitating costly treatments with adverse side effects. Apoptosis, the body's natural cell death process, plays a crucial role in the prevention of cancer, but it's often disrupted in cancer cells, allowing uncontrolled proliferation. Restoring apoptosis in cancer cells is one of the promising therapeutic strategies to curb tumor growth and enhance clinical outcomes. Bcl-B, an anti-apoptotic protein within the Bcl-2 family, interacts with Bax to mitigate apoptosis, indicating it as a druggable target for cancer therapy. There's a critical need for natural, cost-effective alternatives with minimal adverse effects to reduce morbidity rates of cancer patients. Plant-based immunoprotective medications, particularly from sustainable sources like known medicinal plants, offer substantial potential for cancer treatment. This study involves comprehensive in silico approaches (byte) to evaluate the inhibition potential of the phytochemicals derived from Withania somnifera against the anti-apoptotic Bcl-B protein. Research into Bcl-B's binding affinity with 80 phytochemicals from this plant aims to identify interaction sites for promising anticancer agents. This study's focus on Bcl-B protein highlights its potential in modulating apoptotic pathways and exploring novel anti-cancer therapeutics. Through comprehensive screening based on drug-likeness and pharmacokinetic properties, combined with in-house virtual screening, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and MM/PBSA-based binding free energy analysis, three promising candidate inhibitors-Withanolide L (IMPHY009438), Withanolide M (IMPHY003143), and Withanolide A (IMPHY000090)-were identified and prioritized. These candidates showed favorable estimated binding free energy values, along with desirable drug-likeness and pharmacokinetic profiles. The results demonstrated that the selected and prioritized phytochemicals, Withanolide L, Withanolide M, and Withanolide A display comparable efficacy to Obatoclax (CID: 11404337) and other known synthetic, semi-synthetic, and natural inhibitors of Bcl-2 family proteins. These findings establish a strong bench foundation for further experimental validation and bedside application, potentially offering an alternative natural approach to cancer therapy.

The Effect of Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein-1 on Acute Kidney Injury and Renal Tubular Epithelial Triglyceride Accumulation

Introduction

Various types of acute kidney injury (AKI) are associated with triglyceride (TG) accumulation in renal tubular epithelial cells, but the role and mechanisms of TG accumulation in AKI remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the impact of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein-1 (LRP1), a protein that mediates TG endocytosis, on ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI)-induced AKI and TG accumulation in renal tubular epithelial cells.

Methods

We established an IRI-induced AKI mouse model and assessed LRP1 expression by Western blot, RT-qPCR, and immunofluorescence. The LRP1 antagonist receptor-associated protein (RAP) was used to evaluate the effect of LRP1 on AKI and renal TG accumulation in the AKI mouse model. We applied a carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP)-induced hypoxia-reoxygenation model to HK-2 cells in vitro. The effects of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) and LRP1 silencing on TG levels, cell viability, and apoptosis in HK-2 cells were observed.

Results

We observed significant TG accumulation in renal tissue during IRI-AKI, accompanied by upregulation of LRP1 in renal tubular epithelial cells. After intervention with the LRP1 antagonist RAP, AKI was significantly alleviated, and TG levels in renal tissue were notably reduced. However, in the in vitro model, although VLDL increased TG levels in HK-2 cells in both normal culture and hypoxia-reoxygenation conditions, it did not alleviate the decrease in cell viability induced by CCCP. In the absence of exogenous VLDL, silencing LRP1 still reduced CCCP-induced TG accumulation and cell apoptosis, although the reduction in TG levels was less pronounced compared to the presence of exogenous VLDL.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated that the increased expression of LRP1 on renal tubular epithelial cells contributes to IRI-induced AKI and TG accumulation. The injury effects of LRP1 on the renal tubules are independent of TG endocytosis. Targeting the inhibition of LRP1 may emerge as a novel therapeutic strategy for AKI.

Mechanistic Insights on Cardioprotective Properties of Ursolic Acid: Regulation of Mitochondrial and Non-mitochondrial Pathways

Ursolic acid, a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid compound, has been shown to have significant cardioprotective effects in various preclinical studies. This article reviews the various mechanisms by which ursolic acid achieves its cardioprotective effects, highlighting its potent anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti- apoptotic properties. Ursolic acid upregulates anti-oxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), effectively reducing oxidative stress, thereby decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and improving lipid peroxidation levels. Furthermore, ursolic acid downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibits key inflammatory pathways, such as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), which results in its anti-inflammatory effects. These actions help in protecting cardiac tissues from acute and chronic inflammation. Ursolic acid also promotes mitochondrial function and energy metabolism by enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis and reducing dysfunction, which is critical during ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Additionally, ursolic acid influences multiple molecular pathways, including B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 protein (Bcl- 2)/Bcl-2 associated x-protein (Bax), miR-21/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), to reduce cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Collectively, these properties make ursolic acid a promising therapeutic agent for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), warranting further research and clinical trials to harness its potential fully.

ROS-responsive Hydrogel Loaded with Allicin Suppresses Cell Apoptosis for the Treatment of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration in a Rat Model

BACKGROUND

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is a common cause of lower back pain, and cell apoptosis plays a key role in its progression. This study explores the therapeutic potential of a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive hydrogel loaded with allicin for treating IVDD.

METHODS

Allicin was encapsulated in an ROS-responsive hydrogel, and its controlled release was studied in vitro. Nucleus pulposus cells were treated with hydrogen peroxide to induce apoptosis, and the effects of the hydrogel were examined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. An in vivo rat model of IVDD was also established to assess the efficacy of the treatment.

RESULTS

The ROS-responsive hydrogel effectively inhibited apoptosis in nucleus pulposus cells by reducing ROS levels and modulating the expression of apoptotic and antiapoptotic genes. In the rat model, the hydrogel loaded with allicin significantly reduced IVDD, preserving disc morphology and matrix integrity.

CONCLUSIONS

ROS-responsive hydrogel loaded with allicin shows potential as a therapeutic approach for IVDD by inhibiting cell apoptosis and reducing disc degeneration in vivo.

BCL-2 and γ-H2AX immunostaining profile in urothelial bladder cancer prognosis

Urothelial bladder carcinoma (UBC) is a malignant neoplasm of the urinary tract that is highly prevalent worldwide and has a high rate of tumor recurrence. It is known that the BCL2 apoptosis regulator (BCL-2) gene encodes a mitochondrial protein that regulates programmed death cells by apoptosis. In contrast, the H2A.X histone variant (H2AX) gene encodes a histone responsible for regulating and signaling genomic instability processes. The present study aimed to analyze the immunostaining profiles of BCL-2 and γ-H2AX proteins in tissue samples (n=80) from UBC patients (muscle-invasive MI; and non-muscle invasive NMI) using indirect immunohistochemistry and to correlate the results with prognostic and clinical parameters. BCL-2 protein expression was cytoplasmic and absent in half of the samples, including the MI and NMI groups. Strong nuclear expression was observed for γ-H2AX, predominant in the MI samples. The immunostaining profile of both proteins was not associated with tumor recurrence or invasion, and no significant associations were found in relation to prognosis (tumor grade, pathological staging). No significant correlation was found between protein profiles in malignant tissue. All in all, BCL-2 and γ-H2AX did not prove to be candidate markers for UBC clinical management in the present sample, despite their expression in malignant bladder tissue.

The beneficial impact of curcumin on cardiac lipotoxicity

Lipotoxicity is defined as a prolonged metabolic imbalance of lipids that results in ectopic fat distribution in peripheral organs such as the liver, heart, and kidney. The harmful consequences of excessive lipid accumulation in cardiomyocytes cause cardiac lipotoxicity, which alters the structure and function of the heart. Obesity and diabetes are linked to lipotoxic cardiomyopathy. These anomalies might be caused by a harmful metabolic shift that accumulates toxic lipids and shifts glucose oxidation to less fatty acid oxidation. Research has linked fatty acids, fatty acyl coenzyme A, diacylglycerol, and ceramide to lipotoxic stress in cells. This stress can be brought on by apoptosis, impaired insulin signaling, endoplasmic reticulum stress, protein kinase C activation, p38 Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, or modification of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) family members. Curcuma longa is used to extract curcumin, a hydrophobic polyphenol derivative with a variety of pharmacological characteristics. Throughout the years, curcumin has been utilized as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity drug. Curcumin reduces cardiac lipotoxicity by inhibiting apoptosis and decreasing the expression of apoptosis-related proteins, reducing the expression of inflammatory cytokines, activating the autophagy signaling pathway, and inhibiting the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress marker proteins.

Hexavalent Chromium Induces Neurotoxicity by Triggering Mitochondrial Dysfunction and ROS-Mediated Signals

Hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)), one of the most detrimental pollutants, has been ubiquitously present in the environment and causes serious toxicity to humans, such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, pulmonary toxicity, and cardiotoxicity. However, Cr (VI)-induced neurotoxicity in primary neuron level has not been well explored yet. Herein, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) was employed to examine the neurotoxicity of Cr (VI) in rat primary hippocampal neurons. MTT test was used to examine the neural viability. Mitochondrial dysfunction was assessed by the JC-1 probe and Mito-Tracker probe. DCFH-DA and Mito-SOX Red were utilized to evaluate the oxidative status. Bcl-2 family and MAPKs expression were investigated using Western blotting. The results demonstrated that Cr (VI) treatment dose- and time-dependently inhibited neural viability. Mechanism investigation found that Cr (VI) treatment causes mitochondrial dysfunction by affecting Bcl-2 family expression. Moreover, Cr (VI) treatment also induces intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, DNA damage, and MAPKs activation in neurons. However, inhibition of ROS by glutathione (GSH) effectually balanced Bcl-2 family expression, attenuated DNA damage and the MAPKs activation, and eventually improved neural viability neurons. Collectively, these above results above suggest that Cr (VI) causes significant neurotoxicity by triggering mitochondrial dysfunction, ROS-mediated oxidative damage and MAKPs activation.

The Translocase of the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane (TOM40) is required for mitochondrial dynamics and neuronal integrity in Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons

Polymorphisms and altered expression of the Translocase of the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane - 40 kD (Tom40) are observed in neurodegenerative disease subjects. We utilized in vitro cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons to investigate the association of TOM40 depletion to neurodegeneration, and to unravel the mechanism of neurodegeneration induced by decreased levels of TOM40 protein. We provide evidence that severity of neurodegeneration induced in the TOM40 depleted neurons increases with the increase in the depletion of TOM40 and is exacerbated by an increase in the duration of TOM40 depletion. We also demonstrate that TOM40 depletion causes a surge in neuronal calcium levels, decreases mitochondrial motility, increases mitochondrial fission, and decreases neuronal ATP levels. We observed that alterations in the neuronal calcium homeostasis and mitochondrial dynamics precede BCL-xl and NMNAT1 dependent neurodegenerative pathways in the TOM40 depleted neurons. This data also suggests that manipulation of BCL-xl and NMNAT1 may be of therapeutic value in TOM40 associated neurodegenerative disorders.

The role of ginseng derivatives against chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity: A systematic review of non-clinical studies

Aims

Although chemotherapy agents are used to treating cancers, they have serious side effects, like their harmful effects on the cardiovascular system, limiting the clinical use of these chemotherapy agents. This study aimed to systematically investigate the potential role of ginseng derivatives in the prevention of chemotherapy-induced cardiac toxicity.

Methods

This systematic review was performed according to PRISMA guidelines strategy in databases till August 2022. First, identify studies related to using search terms in titles and abstracts. After studying and screening 209 articles, 16 articles were selected in this study according to our inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Results

According to the findings of this study, ginseng derivatives showed significant changes in biochemical, histological, and heart weight loss, as well as a reduction in mortality, which occurred in the groups treated with chemotherapy agents compared to the control groups. Co-administration of ginseng derivatives with chemotherapy agents inhibited or reversed these changes to near-moderate levels. The protective effects of ginseng derivatives can be due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic action.

Conclusion

This systematic review shows evidence that concomitant administration of ginseng derivatives improves chemotherapy-induced cardiac toxicity. However, for better conclusions about the practical mechanisms of ginseng derivatives in reducing the cardiac toxic effects of chemotherapy agents and evaluating the efficacy and safety of the compound simultaneously, it is necessary to design comprehensive studies.

Endosulfan induced kidney cell injury by modulating ACE2 through up-regulating miR-429 in HK-2 cells

Endosulfan, a typical organochlorine pesticide, is widely used in agricultural countries and was detected in blood samples from the general population. Studies have shown a positive correlation between chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) and endosulfan. CKDu has become endemic in agricultural countries, with clinical manifestations of tubulointerstitial fibrosis.The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of endosulfan in kidney cell injury in human renal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2), focusing on apoptosis, inflammatory response, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We found that endosulfan induced apoptosis in HK-2 cells by up-regulating the expression of BAX, APAF-1, Caspase-3 and mitochondrial Cytochrome c was released into the cytosol. Endosulfan caused an inflammatory response, showing the increase in the secretion and mRNA expression levels of IL-6/IL-8. Endosulfan triggered EMT, characterized by downregulation of E-cadherin and upregulation of Vimentin. Western blot results showed that p-Smad3 and Smad3 protein expression were elevated while the expression of Smad7 were decreased in endosulfan-exposed groups. Dual luciferase reporter assay confirmed the potential binding capacity of miR-429 to 3'-UTR of ACE2. Endosulfan causes upregulation of miR-429 and downregulation of ACE2 in HK-2 cells. Overexpression of miR-429 or silencing of ACE2 in HK-2 cells caused apoptosis, inflammation and EMT through TGF signaling pathway. These findings suggest that endosulfan can lead to kidney cell injury by modulating ACE2 through up-regulating miR-429, providing new evidence for the pathogenesis of CKDu.

Real-Time Monitoring the Cytotoxic Effect of Andrographolide on Human Oral Epidermoid Carcinoma Cells

Andrographolide is an active diterpenoid compound extracted from Andrographis paniculata. It exhibits antiinflammatory and anticancer effects. Previous studies show that it is non-toxic to experimental animals. The leading causes of cancer are chronic inflammation and high blood glucose. This study determines the cytotoxic effect of andrographolide on cellular morphology, viability, and migration for human oral epidermoid carcinoma cell Meng-1 (OEC-M1). We use electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) to measure the subsequent overall impedance changes of the cell monolayer in response to different concentrations of andrographolide for 24 h (10–100 µM). The results for exposure of OEC-M1 cells to andrographolide (10–100 µM) for 24 h show a concentration-dependent decrease in the overall measured resistance at 4 kHz. AlamarBlue cell viability assay and annexin V also show the apoptotic effect of andrographolide on OEC-M1 cells. A reduction in wound-healing recovery rate is observed for cells treated with 30 μM andrographolide. This study demonstrates that ECIS can be used for the in vitro screening of anticancer drugs. ECIS detects the cytotoxic effect of drugs earlier than traditional biochemical assays, and it is more sensitive and shows more detail.

Grafting Hydrophobic Amino Acids Critical for Inhibition of Protein-Protein Interactions on a Cell-Penetrating Peptide Scaffold

Stapled peptides are a promising class of conformationally restricted peptides for modulating protein-protein interactions (PPIs). However, the low membrane permeability of these peptides is an obstacle to their therapeutic applications. It is common that only a few hydrophobic amino acid residues are mandatory for stapled peptides to bind to their target proteins. Hoping to create a novel class of membrane-permeable PPI inhibitors, the phenylalanine, tryptophan, and leucine residues that play a critical role in inhibiting the p53-HDM2 interaction were grafted into the framework of CADY2─a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) having a helical propensity. Two analogues (CADY-3FWL and CADY-10FWL) induced apoptotic cell death but lacked the intended HDM2 interaction. Pull-down experiments followed by proteomic analysis led to the elucidation of nesprin-2 as a candidate binding target. Nesprin-2 is considered to play a role in the nuclear translocation of β-catenin upon activation of the Wnt signaling pathway, which leads to the expression of antiapoptosis proteins and cell survival. Cells treated with the two analogues showed decreased nuclear localization of β-catenin and reduced mRNA expression of related antiapoptotic proteins. These data suggest inhibition of β-catenin nuclear translocation as a possible mode of action of the described cell-penetrating stapled peptides.

Salmonella Infantis Delays the Death of Infected Epithelial Cells to Aggravate Bacterial Load by Intermittent Phosphorylation of Akt With SopB

Salmonella Infantis has emerged as a major clinical pathogen causing gastroenteritis worldwide in recent years. As an intracellular pathogen, Salmonella has evolved to manipulate and benefit from the cell death signaling pathway. In this study, we discovered that S. Infantis inhibited apoptosis of infected Caco-2 cells by phosphorylating Akt. Notably, Akt phosphorylation was observed in a discontinuous manner: immediately 0.5 h after the invasion, then before peak cytosolic replication. Single-cell analysis revealed that the second phase was only induced by cytosolic hyper-replicating bacteria at 3-4 hpi. Next, Akt-mediated apoptosis inhibition was found to be initiated by Salmonella SopB. Furthermore, Akt phosphorylation increased mitochondrial localization of Bcl-2 to prevent Bax oligomerization on the mitochondrial membrane, maintaining the mitochondrial network homeostasis to resist apoptosis. In addition, S. Infantis induced pyroptosis, as evidenced by increased caspase-1 (p10) and GSDMS-N levels. In contrast, cells infected with the ΔSopB strain displayed faster but less severe pyroptosis and had less bacterial load. The results indicated that S. Infantis SopB-mediated Akt phosphorylation delayed pyroptosis, but aggravated its severity. The wild-type strain also caused more severe diarrhea and intestinal inflammatory damage than the ΔSopB strain in mice. These findings revealed that S. Infantis delayed the cells' death by intermittent activation of Akt, allowing sufficient time for replication, thereby causing more severe inflammation.

Transferrin-conjugated liposomes loaded with carnosic acid inhibit liver cancer growth by inducing mitochondria-mediated apoptosis

Our previous studies have proven that carnosic acid (CA) induces apoptosis of liver cancer cells. However, the poor chemical properties of CA limit its in vivo anti-cancer effects. In this study, CA was loaded into liposomes (LP-CA), and LP-CA was further conjugated with transferrin (Tf-LP-CA) to overcome the shortcomings of poor solubility and absorption at the lesion site. In HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, compared with CA and LP-CA, more Tf-LP-CA was absorbed by liver cancer cells, which induced higher levels of apoptosis and reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential more effectively. In HepG2- and SMMC-7721-xenotransplanted mice, Tf-LP-CA inhibited tumor growth with no cytotoxicity to the liver, spleen, or kidney. Furthermore, compared with CA and LP-CA, Tf-LP-CA targeted the tumor site more effectively, enhanced the expressions of cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, and Caspase-3 and -9, and regulated the expression levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) family members in the tumor tissues. Tf-LP-CA was taken up by tumor cells and targeted at tumor tissues, ensuring the precise delivery of CA, which further promoted mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis in the liver cancer cells. These results provide evidence for the clinical application of the Tf-LP-based CA drug delivery system for liver cancer.

Transferrin-Conjugated Erianin-Loaded Liposomes Suppress the Growth of Liver Cancer by Modulating Oxidative Stress

Background

Liver cancer is one of the most malignant human cancers, with few treatments and a poor prognosis. Erianin (ERN) is a natural compound with multiple pharmacological activities that has been reported to have numerous excellent effects against liver cancer in experimental systems. However, its application in vivo has been limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and numerous off-target effects. This study aimed to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ERN by developing novel ERN-loaded tumor-targeting nanoparticles.

Results

In this study, ERN was loaded into liposomes by ethanol injection (LP-ERN), and the resulting LP-ERN nanoparticles were treated with transferrin to form Tf-LP-ERN to improve the solubility and enhance the tumor-targeting of ERN. LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles had smooth surfaces and a uniform particle size, with particle diameters of 62.60 nm and 88.63 nm, respectively. In HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, Tf-LP-ERN induced apoptosis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potentials and increased ERN uptake more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN. In xenotransplanted mice, Tf-LP-ERN inhibited tumor growth, but had a minimal effect on body weight and organ morphology. In addition, Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles targeted tumors more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles, and in tumor tissues Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles promoted the cleavage PARP-1, caspase-3 and caspase-9, increased the expression levels of Bax, Bad, PUMA, and reduced the expression level of Bcl-2. Moreover, in the spleen of heterotopic tumor model BALB/c mice, ERN, LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles increased the expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, SOD-1 and SOD-2, but reduced the expression levels of P-IKKα+β and P-NF-κB, with Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles being most effective in this regard. Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles also regulated the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-10 and CCL11 in serum.

Conclusion

Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles exhibited excellent anti-liver cancer activity in vivo and in vitro by inducing cellular apoptosis, exhibiting immunoregulatory actions, and targeting tumor tissues, and did so more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles. These results suggest that the clinical utility of a Tf-conjugated LP ERN-delivery system for the treatment of liver cancer warrants exploration.

Curcumin Nanoparticles Attenuate Lipotoxic Injury in Cardiomyocytes Through Autophagy and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Signaling Pathways

Although curcumin (CUR) has many advantages, its hydrophobicity and instability limit its application. In this study, the anti-lipotoxic injury activity of CUR-loaded nanoparticles (CUR-NPs) and the corresponding mechanism were examined in palmitate (PA)-treated cardiomyocytes. An amphiphilic copolymer was selected as the vehicle material, and CUR-NPs with suitable sizes were prepared under optimized conditions. Cellular uptake was examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy, and cell proliferation inhibition rate was measured using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetra bromide (MTT) assay. The terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay was used to detect cell apoptosis. The protein expression was detected by western blot. Exposure to PA reduces the proliferation of cardiomyocytes, but this effect was strongly reversed by CUR-NPs. In addition, our data showed that CUR-NPs strongly inhibited cell apoptosis in PA-treated cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, CUR-NPs remarkably increased the expression of LC3-II, as well as inhibited the expression of p-PERK, p-eIF2α, and ATF4 in PA-treated cardiomyocytes. Salubrinal (an eIF2α inhibitor) blocked the protective effect of CUR-NPs against PA-induced cardiomyocyte injury. Our results suggested that CUR-NPs can activated the autophagy pathway and protect myocardial cells from apoptosis, and these effects may be mediated by the eIF2α-related endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway.

Transferrin-Conjugated Erianin-Loaded Liposomes Suppress the Growth of Liver Cancer by Modulating Oxidative Stress

Background

Liver cancer is one of the most malignant human cancers, with few treatments and a poor prognosis. Erianin (ERN) is a natural compound with multiple pharmacological activities that has been reported to have numerous excellent effects against liver cancer in experimental systems. However, its application in vivo has been limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and numerous off-target effects. This study aimed to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ERN by developing novel ERN-loaded tumor-targeting nanoparticles.

Results

In this study, ERN was loaded into liposomes by ethanol injection (LP-ERN), and the resulting LP-ERN nanoparticles were treated with transferrin to form Tf-LP-ERN to improve the solubility and enhance the tumor-targeting of ERN. LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles had smooth surfaces and a uniform particle size, with particle diameters of 62.60 nm and 88.63 nm, respectively. In HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, Tf-LP-ERN induced apoptosis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potentials and increased ERN uptake more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN. In xenotransplanted mice, Tf-LP-ERN inhibited tumor growth, but had a minimal effect on body weight and organ morphology. In addition, Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles targeted tumors more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles, and in tumor tissues Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles promoted the cleavage PARP-1, caspase-3 and caspase-9, increased the expression levels of Bax, Bad, PUMA, and reduced the expression level of Bcl-2. Moreover, in the spleen of heterotopic tumor model BALB/c mice, ERN, LP-ERN and Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles increased the expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, SOD-1 and SOD-2, but reduced the expression levels of P-IKKα+β and P-NF-κB, with Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles being most effective in this regard. Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles also regulated the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-10 and CCL11 in serum.

Conclusion

Tf-LP-ERN nanoparticles exhibited excellent anti-liver cancer activity in vivo and in vitro by inducing cellular apoptosis, exhibiting immunoregulatory actions, and targeting tumor tissues, and did so more effectively than free ERN and LP-ERN nanoparticles. These results suggest that the clinical utility of a Tf-conjugated LP ERN-delivery system for the treatment of liver cancer warrants exploration.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Potentiates the Resistance of Cancer Cell Lines to Anticancer Chemotherapeutics

BACKGROUND

Despite the advancement in the fields of medical science and molecular biology, cancer is still the leading cause of death worldwide. Chemotherapy is a choice for treatment; however, the acquisition of chemo-resistance is a major impediment to cancer management. Many mechanisms have been postulated regarding the acquisition of chemo-resistance in breast cancer the impact on cellular signaling and the induction of apoptosis in tumour cells. The mechanism of the apoptotic mutation of p53 and bcl-2 proteins is commonly associated with increased resistance to apoptosis and, therein, to chemotherapy.

OBJECTIVES

The current study was aimed to investigate A172 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells' sensitivity against chemotherapeutic drugs, including cisplatin, doxorubicin, and paclitaxel with different doses. Moreover, it estimates the resistance of cancer cells by evaluating nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression and evaluate its correlation with the expression profile proteins of the apoptosis regulating Bcl-2 family.

METHODS

Dose-dependent sensitivity to cisplatin, doxorubicin, or paclitaxel was evaluated on spheroid cultured A172 and MDA-MB-231 cells lines as measured by time-lapse microscopy over a 72h period. Expressions of two nitric oxides (NO) synthases isoforms (iNOS, eNOS), anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2, phospho-Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and Bcl-xL), and pro-apoptotic (BID, Bim, Bok, Bad, Puma, and Bax) were evaluated by Western blot. The effect of NO modulation on anti- and pro-apoptotic molecule expression was also studied using Western blot.

RESULT

A172 cells show more resistance to chemotherapy drugs than MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. Therefore, they need higher doses for apoptosis. Resistance of gliomas might be returned to the higher significant expression of endothelial eNOS expression. It was clear that there is not a significant effect of NO modulation on the expression of pro-and anti-apoptotic proteins on both cell lines.

CONCLUSION

The present work provides a putative mechanism for the acquisition of drug resistance in breast cancer and glioma, which might be significant for clinical outcomes.

Differential mechanisms involved in RG-7388 and Nutlin-3 induced cell death in SJSA-1 osteosarcoma cells

Targeted therapy is becoming the mainstay of cancer treatment due to reduced side effects and enhanced tumor attack. In the last few decades, Murine Double Minute 2 (MDM2) protein has become one of the targets for developing cancer therapies. Blocking MDM2-p53 interaction has long been considered to offer a broad range of advantages during cancer treatment. In this study, we are reporting the differential mechanism of cell death induced by the two small-molecule inhibitors, named RG-7388 and Nutlin-3, that are specific for MDM2 in SJSA-1 Osteosarcoma cells (OS). Mechanistically, RG-7388 was able to enhance the phosphorylation of Mcl-1, which appears to significantly enhance its degradation, thereby relieving the pro-apoptotic protein Bak to execute the apoptosis mechanism. It was noted that the untreated SJSA-1 cells showed an accumulation of Mcl-1 levels, which was decreased following RG-7388 and to a lesser extent by Nutlin-3 and GSK-3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) inhibitor treatments. Additionally, we noted that CHIR-99021 (GSK-3β inhibitor) blocked the cytotoxicity exerted by RG-7388 on SJSA-1 cells by decreasing Bak levels. Since Bak is an important pro-apoptotic protein, we hypothesized that phosphorylation of Mcl-1 by GSK-3β could negatively impact the Mcl-1/Bak dimerization and relieve Bak to trigger the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and thereby initiates apoptosis. We also observed that inhibition of GSK-3β mediated reduction in Bak levels had a protective effect on the mitochondrial membrane integrity, and thus, caused a significant inhibition of the caspase-3 activity and PARP cleavage. Nutlin-3, on the other hand, appears to increase the levels of Bax, leading to the inactivation of Bcl-2, consequently loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and release of Cytochrome c (Cyt c) and elevation of Apaf-1 triggering apoptosis. Thus, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that delineates the differences in the molecular mechanism involving two MDM2 inhibitors triggering apoptosis through parallel pathways in SJSA-1 cells. This study further opens new avenues for the use of RG-7388 in treating osteosarcomas that often becomes resistant to chemotherapy due to Bcl-2 overexpression.

Down-regulation of AMPK signaling pathway rescues hearing loss in TFB1 transgenic mice and delays age-related hearing loss

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) integrates the regulation of cell growth and metabolism. AMPK activation occurs in response to cellular energy decline and mitochondrial dysfunction triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS). In aged Tg-mtTFB1 mice, a mitochondrial deafness mouse model, hearing loss is accompanied with cochlear pathology including reduced endocochlear potential (EP) and loss of spiral ganglion neurons (SGN), inner hair cell (IHC) synapses and outer hair cells (OHC). Accumulated ROS and increased apoptosis signaling were also detected in cochlear tissues, accompanied by activation of AMPK. To further explore the role of AMPK signaling in the auditory phenotype, we used genetically knocked out AMPKα1 as a rescue to Tg-mtTFB1 mice and observed: improved ABR wave I, EP and IHC function, normal SGNs, IHC synapses morphology and OHC survivals, with decreased ROS, reduced pro-apoptotic signaling (Bax) and increased anti-apoptotic signaling (Bcl-2) in the cochlear tissues, indicating that reduced AMPK attenuated apoptosis via ROS-AMPK-Bcl2 pathway in the cochlea. To conclude, AMPK hyperactivation causes accelerated presbycusis in Tg-mtTFB1 mice by redox imbalance and dysregulation of the apoptosis pathway. The effects of AMPK downregulation on pro-survival function and reduction of oxidative stress indicate AMPK serves as a target to rescue or relieve mitochondrial hearing loss.

Expression Profile and Potential Functions of Circulating Long Noncoding RNAs in Acute Ischemic Stroke in the Southern Chinese Han Population

Background: Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been confirmed to be associated with ischemic stroke (IS); however, their involvement still needs to be extensively explored. Therefore, we aimed to study the expression profile of lncRNAs and the potential roles and mechanisms of lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) in the Southern Chinese Han population.

Methods: In this study, lncRNA and mRNA expression profiles in AIS were analyzed using high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) and validated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment and network analyses were performed to predict the functions and interactions of the aberrantly expressed genes. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to evaluate the diagnostic value of lncRNAs in AIS.

Results: RNA-Seq analysis showed that 428 lncRNAs and 957 mRNAs were significantly upregulated, while 791 lncRNAs and 4,263 mRNAs were downregulated in patients with AIS when compared with healthy controls. GO enrichment and KEGG pathway analyses of differentially expressed genes showed that the apoptosis, inflammatory, oxidative and calcium signaling pathways were potentially implicated in AIS pathology. The PCR results showed that the selected lncRNA-C14orf64 and lncRNA-AC136007.2 were significantly downregulated in AIS. ROC curve analysis showed that the area under the ROC curve (AUC) values of lncRNA-C14orf64 and lncRNA-AC136007.2 between AIS and healthy controls were 0.74 and 0.94, respectively.

Conclusion: This study provides evidence of altered expression of lncRNAs and their potential functions in AIS. Our findings may facilitate pathological mechanistic studies of lncRNAs in AIS and provide potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for AIS.

Mechanism and intervention measures of iron side effects on the intestine

Excess oral iron in the intestinal tract usually produces reactive oxygen species via Fenton and Haber-Weiss reaction, so oxidative stress is triggered. Lipid peroxidation procedurally appears, ferroptosis, apoptosis and necrosis are often induced, subsequently, mitochondrial damage, endoplasmic reticulum dysfunction and even cell death occur. As a result, the intestinal epithelial cells are destroyed, leading to the incompleteness of intestinal mechanical barrier. Simultaneously, iron supplement can change the compositions and metabolic processes of intestinal microbes, and the intestinal inflammatory may be worsened. In principle, the easier dissociation of Fe²⁺ from oral iron supplements is, the more serious intestinal inflammation will occur. Fortunately, some interventions have been developed to alleviate these side effects. For instance, some antioxidants e.g. VE and ferulic acid have been used to prevent the formation of free radicals or to neutralize the formed free radicals. Furthermore, some new iron supplements with the ability of slow-releasing Fe²⁺, e.g. ferrous citrate liposome and EDTA iron sodium, have been successfully prepared. In order to recover the intestinal micro-ecological balance, probiotics and prebiotics, bacterial consortium transplantation, and fecal microbiota transplantation have been developed. This study is meaningful for us to develop safer oral iron supplements and to maintain intestinal micro-ecological health.

Curcumin‑loaded PEG‑PDLLA nanoparticles for attenuating palmitate‑induced oxidative stress and cardiomyocyte apoptosis through AMPK pathway

Curcumin (CUR) has the ability to attenuate oxidative stress in the myocardium and to protect the myocardium from lipotoxic injury owing to its lipid-reducing properties. However, the use of CUR is limited due to its hydrophobicity and instability. In this study, CUR-loaded nanoparticles (CUR NPs) were developed using an amphiphilic copolymer, monomethoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly (DL-lactide), as a vehicle material. CUR NPs with high drug loading and small size were prepared under optimized conditions. The effects of CUR NPs on palmitate-induced cardiomyocyte injury were investigated and the possible protective mechanism of CUR NPs was also examined. It was found that CUR NPs were able to control the release of CUR and to deliver CUR to H9C2 cells, and they could prevent palmitate-treated H9C2 cells from apoptosis. In addition, CUR NPs could regulate the Bax and Bcl-2 levels of palmitate-treated H9C2 cells back to their respective normal levels. A prospective mechanism for the function of CUR NPs is that they may activate the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin complex-1/p-p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase signaling pathway, regulate the expression of downstream proteins and resist the palmitate-induced cardiomyocyte injury. Results suggest that CUR NPs can attenuate palmitate-induced oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes and protect cardiomyocytes from apoptosis through the AMPK pathway. In view of the safety and efficiency of these CUR NPs, they have potential for application in protecting the myocardium from lipotoxic injury.

Pharmacology of ME-344, a novel cytotoxic isoflavone

Isoflavones isolated from members of the Fabaceae (primarily Leguminosae) family have been characterized for their phytoestrogenic properties, but certain derivatives have also shown potential as possible cancer therapeutic agents. ME-344, related to phenoxodiol (Fig. 1), is a second generation isoflavone with a recent history of both preclinical and early clinical testing. The drug has unusual cytotoxicity profiles, where cancer cell lines can be categorized as either intrinsically sensitive or resistant to the drug. Evolving studies show that the cytotoxic properties of the drug are enacted through targeting mitochondrial bioenergetics. While the drug has undergone early Phase I/II trials in solid tumors with confined dose limiting effects and some evidence of disease response, there is a continuing need to define specific cellular targets that determine sensitivity, with the long-term goal of applying such information to individualized therapy. This review article details some of the existing and ongoing studies that are assisting in the continued drug development processes that may lead to new drug application (NDA) status.

Cross Talk Between Cellular Redox State and the Antiapoptotic Protein Bcl-2

SIGNIFICANCE

B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) was discovered over three decades ago and is the prototype antiapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family that comprises proteins with contrasting effects on cell fate. First identified as a consequence of chromosomal translocation (t 14:18) in human lymphoma, subsequent studies have revealed mutations and/or gene copy number alterations as well as post-translational modifications of Bcl-2 in a variety of human cancers. The canonical function of Bcl-2 is linked to its ability to inhibit mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, thereby regulating apoptosome assembly and activation by blocking the cytosolic translocation of death amplification factors. Of note, the identification of specific domains within the Bcl-2 family of proteins (Bcl-2 homology domains; BH domains) has not only provided a mechanistic insight into the various interactions between the member proteins but has also been the impetus behind the design and development of small molecule inhibitors and BH3 mimetics for clinical use. Recent Advances: Aside from its role in maintaining mitochondrial integrity, recent evidence provides testimony to a novel facet in the biology of Bcl-2 that involves an intricate cross talk with cellular redox state. Bcl-2 overexpression modulates mitochondrial redox metabolism to create a "pro-oxidant" milieu, conducive for cell survival. However, under states of oxidative stress, overexpression of Bcl-2 functions as a redox sink to prevent excessive buildup of reactive oxygen species, thereby inhibiting execution signals. Emerging evidence indicates various redox-dependent transcriptional changes and post-translational modifications with different functional outcomes.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Understanding the complex interplay between Bcl-2 and the cellular redox milieu from the standpoint of cell fate signaling remains vital for a better understanding of pathological states associated with altered redox metabolism and/or aberrant Bcl-2 expression.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Based on its canonical functions, Bcl-2 has emerged as a potential druggable target. Small molecule inhibitors of Bcl-2 and/or other family members with similar function, as well as BH3 mimetics, are showing promise in the clinic. The emerging evidence for the noncanonical activity linked to cellular redox metabolism provides a novel avenue for the design and development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies against cancers refractory to conventional chemotherapy by the overexpression of this prosurvival protein.

Tanshinone IIA Pretreatment Protects H9c2 Cells against Anoxia/Reoxygenation Injury: Involvement of the Translocation of Bcl-2 to Mitochondria Mediated by 14-3-3η

Tanshinone IIA is an important component that is isolated from danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza), which is known to be beneficial for cardiovascular health. In this study, we determined the effects of Tanshinone IIA and its underlying mechanisms of action in an anoxia/reoxygenation (A/R) cell line model. Prior to inducing A/R injury, rat cardiomyocyte-derived cell line H9c2 was stimulated with 8 μM of Tanshinone IIA for 48 hours. When compared with the A/R group, the Tanshinone IIA treatment significantly increased cell viability and decreased lactate dehydrogenase activity. Tanshinone IIA upregulated 14-3-3η expression and facilitated Bcl-2 translocation to the mitochondrial outer membrane, which bound with voltage-dependent anion channel 1. In addition, pretreatment with Tanshinone IIA reduced the generation of reactive oxygen species and cytochrome c release, inactivated caspase-3, prevented mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, and reduced the percentage of apoptotic cells. Moreover, treatment with Tanshinone IIA reduced the level of malondialdehyde, thereby increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Silencing the expression of 14-3-3η by adenovirus blocked the above-mentioned results. These novel findings showed that pretreatment with Tanshinone IIA alleviated H9c2 cell damage against A/R injury and was associated with upregulation of 14-3-3η, thereby facilitating Bcl-2 translocation to the mitochondrial outer membrane and preventing mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, decreasing cytochrome c release, preventing caspase-3 activation, and restraining apoptosis.

Rab5 and Alsin regulate stress-activated cytoprotective signaling on mitochondria

Mitochondrial stress response is essential for cell survival, and damaged mitochondria are a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, it is fundamental to understand how mitochondria relay information within the cell. Here, by investigating mitochondrial-endosomal contact sites we made the surprising observation that the small GTPase Rab5 translocates from early endosomes to mitochondria upon oxidative stress. This process is reversible and accompanied by an increase in Rab5-positive endosomes in contact with mitochondria. Interestingly, activation of Rab5 on mitochondria depends on the Rab5-GEF ALS2/Alsin, encoded by a gene mutated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Alsin-deficient human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived spinal motor neurons are defective in relocating Rab5 to mitochondria and display increased susceptibility to oxidative stress. These findings define a novel pathway whereby Alsin catalyzes the assembly of the Rab5 endocytic machinery on mitochondria. Defects in stress-sensing by endosomes could be crucial for mitochondrial quality control during the onset of ALS.

The inside of a human cell is divided into compartments called organelles, which are surrounded by membranes. Each organelle plays a specific role in keeping the cell healthy and also has unique mix of molecular markers on its surface. These markers allow other molecules to identify the different organelles, meaning that specific organelles can communicate with each other and coordinate their activities. One way that organelles can do this is via so-called membrane contact sites, which are small areas where the compartments’ outer membranes come close together.

Mitochondria are organelles that release energy inside human cells. These compartments also work to keep the levels of toxic chemicals called reactive oxygen species in the cell within a safe range. This is important because cells can die if these levels become too high – a state known as oxidative stress. Mitochondria also communicate with other organelles called endosomes, which receive materials from the cell surface, sort and direct them to different destinations throughout the cell.

In many diseases affecting the nervous system, the mitochondria and endosomes in nerve cells do not work properly. These cells also have higher than normal levels of oxidative stress. Hsu et al. therefore wanted to find out if mitochondria and endosomes worked together to help cells to cope with this kind of stress.

Hsu et al. triggered oxidative stress in human cancer cells by exposing them first to a dye that stained the mitochondria and then to intense light. In stressed cells, a subset of endosomes called early endosomes formed many more membrane contact sites with mitochondria than in non-stressed cells. At the same time, the protein Rab5, usually found on early endosomes, relocated to the surface of mitochondria. Human cells previously engineered to produce larger than normal amounts of Rab5 were also more likely to survive oxidative stress. These experiments suggested that early endosomes cooperate with mitochondria, via Rab5, to protect cells from oxidative stress.

So, how is Rab5 relocated to mitochondria? Hsu et al. searched for activators of Rab5 and found that Alsin also migrated to mitochondria in stressed cells. The gene for Alsin is also mutated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a degenerative nerve disorder that remains poorly understood. Next, Hsu et al. deleted the gene for Alsin from human stem cells growing in the laboratory and coaxed these cells into becoming nerve cells. Experiments with these cells showed that the absence of Alsin prevented Rab5 from moving to the mitochondria. Nerve cells lacking Alsin were also more susceptible to oxidative stress than normal cells.

Together, these findings show that early endosomes work with mitochondria to sense and ward off oxidative stress. They also reveal an unexpected connection between this process and a gene mutated in ALS. Further experiments are now needed to explore if problems with endosomes or mitochondria, and specifically with molecules like Alsin and Rab5, are responsible for other neurodegenerative disorders, like Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

PINK1-PRKN/PARK2 pathway of mitophagy is activated to protect against renal ischemia-reperfusion injury

Damaged or dysfunctional mitochondria are toxic to the cell by producing reactive oxygen species and releasing cell death factors. Therefore, timely removal of these organelles is critical to cellular homeostasis and viability. Mitophagy is the mechanism of selective degradation of mitochondria via autophagy. The significance of mitophagy in kidney diseases, including ischemic acute kidney injury (AKI), has yet to be established, and the involved pathway of mitophagy remains poorly understood. Here, we show that mitophagy is induced in renal proximal tubular cells in both in vitro and in vivo models of ischemic AKI. Mitophagy under these conditions is abrogated by Pink1 and Park2 deficiency, supporting a critical role of the PINK1-PARK2 pathway in tubular cell mitophagy. Moreover, ischemic AKI is aggravated in pink1 andpark2 single- as well as double-knockout mice. Mechanistically, Pink1 and Park2 deficiency enhances mitochondrial damage, reactive oxygen species production, and inflammatory response. Taken together, these results indicate that PINK1-PARK2-mediated mitophagy plays an important role in mitochondrial quality control, tubular cell survival, and renal function during AKI.

The Role of BCL-2 Family Members in Acute Kidney Injury

B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) family proteins gather at the biologic cross-roads of renal cell survival: the outer mitochondrial membrane. Despite shared sequence and structural features, members of this conserved protein family constantly antagonize each other in a life-and-death battle. BCL-2 members innocently reside within renal cells until activated or de-activated by physiologic stresses caused by common nephrotoxins, transient ischemia, or acute glomerulonephritis. Recent experimental data not only illuminate the intricate mechanisms of apoptosis, the most familiar form of BCL-2-mediated cell death, but emphasizes their newfound roles in necrosis, necroptosis, membrane pore transition regulated necrosis, and other forms of acute cell demise. A major paradigm shift in non-cell death roles of the BCL-2 family has occurred. BCL-2 proteins also regulate critical daily renal cell housekeeping functions including cell metabolism, autophagy (an effective means for recycling cell components), mitochondrial morphology (organelle fission and fusion), as well as mitochondrial biogenesis. This article considers new concepts in the biochemical and structural regulation of BCL-2 proteins that contribute to membrane pore permeabilization, a universal feature of cell death. Despite these advances, persistent BCL-2 family mysteries continue to challenge cell biologists. Given their interface with many intracellular functions, it is likely that BCL-2 proteins determine cell viability under many pathologic circumstances relevant to the nephrologist and, as a consequence, represent an ideal therapeutic target.

Oral administration of Ginsenoside Rg1 prevents cardiac toxicity induced by doxorubicin in mice through anti-apoptosis

Although Ginsenoside Rg1 has been reported to have protective cardiac effects, its effects on cardiac toxicity induced by doxorubicin needs to be studied. The present study investigated the effects of oral administration of Rg1 on the heart in mice treated with doxorubicin and found improved fractional shortening and ejection fraction of the heart and decreased cardiac apoptosis in mice treated with doxorubicin. The underlying mechanisms include increased phosphorylation of Akt and Erk by Rg1, increased ratio of Bcl-2 and Bax, and decreased release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, thereby protecting the heart from doxorubicin-induced apoptosis. This phenotype suggested that the oral administration of Rg1 may be a potential method preventing the cardiac toxicity caused by doxorubicin in clinical practice.

Blocking peptides and molecular mimicry as treatment for kidney disease

Protein mimotopes, or blocking peptides, are small therapeutic peptides that prevent protein-protein interactions by selectively mimicking a native binding domain. Inexpensive technology facilitates straightforward design and production of blocking peptides in sufficient quantities to allow preventive and therapeutic trials in both in vitro and in vivo experimental disease models. The kidney is an ideal peptide target, since small molecules undergo rapid filtration and efficient bulk absorption by tubular epithelial cells. Because the half-life of peptides is markedly prolonged in the kidneys compared with the bloodstream, blocking peptides are an attractive tool for treating diverse renal diseases, including ischemia, proteinuric states, such as membranous nephropathy and focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis, and renal cell carcinoma. Therapeutic peptides represent one of the fastest-growing reagent classes for novel drug development in human disease, partly because of their ease of administration, high binding affinity, and minimal off-target effects. This review introduces the concepts of blocking peptide design, production, and administration and highlights the potential use of therapeutic peptides to prevent or treat specific renal diseases.

Myricitrin Protects against Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity by Counteracting Oxidative Stress and Inhibiting Mitochondrial Apoptosis via ERK/P53 Pathway

Doxorubicin (Dox) is one of the most effective and widely used anthracycline antineoplastic antibiotics. Unfortunately, the use of Dox is limited by its cumulative and dose-dependent cardiac toxicity. Myricitrin, a natural flavonoid which is isolated from the ground bark of Myrica rubra, has recently been found to have a strong antioxidative effect. This study aimed to evaluate the possible protective effect of myricitrin against Dox-induced cardiotoxicity and the underlying mechanisms. An in vivo investigation in SD rats demonstrated that myricitrin significantly reduced the Dox-induced myocardial damage, as indicated by the decreases in the cardiac index, amelioration of heart pathological injuries, and decreases in the serum cardiac enzyme levels. In addition, in vitro studies showed that myricitrin effectively reduced the Dox-induced cell toxicity. Further study showed that myricitrin exerted its function by counteracting oxidative stress and increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, myricitrin suppressed the myocardial apoptosis induced by Dox, as indicated by decreases in the activation of caspase-3 and the numbers of TUNEL-positive cells, maintenance of the mitochondrial membrane potential, and increase in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Further mechanism study revealed that myricitrin-induced suppression of myocardial apoptosis relied on the ERK/p53-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis pathway.

The anti-oxidant and pro-oxidant dichotomy of Bcl-2

Across a wide spectrum of cellular redox status, there emerges a dichotomy of responses in terms of cell survival/proliferation and cell death. Of note, there is emerging evidence that the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, in addition to its conventional activity of titrating the pro-apoptotic effects of proteins such as Bax and Bak at the mitochondria, also impacts cell fate decisions via modulating cellular redox metabolism. In this regard, both pro- and anti-oxidant effects of Bcl-2 overexpression have been described under different conditions and cellular contexts. In this short review, we attempt to analyze existing observations and present a probable explanation for the seemingly conflicting redox regulating activity of Bcl-2 from the standpoint of its pro-survival function. The consequential effect(s) of the dual redox functions of Bcl-2 are also discussed, particularly from the viewpoint of developing novel therapeutic strategies against cancers rendered refractory due to the aberrant expression of Bcl-2.

Torilis japonica extract-generated intracellular ROS induces apoptosis by reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential via regulation of the AMPK-p38 MAPK signaling pathway in HCT116 colon cancer

Torilis japonica extract (TJE) has been reported to possess diverse medicinal properties including anti‑inflammatory and antibacterial activities. However, the precise mechanism of its anticancer effect is not understood. Thus, we evaluated the apoptotic effects of TJE and examined its underlying molecular mechanisms in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. Our results show that TJE induces apoptosis through the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and that it regulates the mitochondrial outer membrane potential via the AMPK/p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Importantly, ~50% of cancer cells have p53 mutations. Thus, the ability to induce apoptosis in a p53-independent manner would be of great value in cancer treatment. Our results show that not only does TJE regulate the AMPK/p38 signaling pathway, but it induces apoptosis in cells in which p53 has been knocked down using siRNA. Moreover, as in in vitro studies, TJE induced apoptosis and regulated apoptosis related-proteins in an HCT 116 xenograft model. Taken together, our results demonstrate that TJE, a natural compound that may provide a substitute for chemotherapeutic drugs, has potential as an anticancer agent.

Autophagy for the quality control of adult hippocampal neural stem cells

Autophagy plays an important role in neurodegeneration, as well as in normal brain development and function. Recent studies have also implicated autophagy in the regulation of stemness and neurogenesis in neural stem cells (NSCs). However, little is known regarding the roles of autophagy in NSC biology. It has been shown that in addition to cytoprotective roles of autophagy, pro-death autophagy, or ׳autophagic cell death (ACD),' regulates the quantity of adult NSCs. A tight regulation of survival and death of NSCs residing in the neurogenic niches through programmed cell death (PCD) is critical for maintenance of adult neurogenesis. ACD plays a primary role in the death of adult hippocampal neural stem (HCN) cells following insulin withdrawal. Despite the normal apoptotic capability of HCN cells, they are committed to death by autophagy following insulin withdrawal, suggesting the existence of a unique regulatory program that controls the mode of cell death. We propose that dual roles of autophagy for maintenance of NSC pluripotency, as well as for elimination of defective NSCs, may serve as a combined NSC quality control mechanism. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Autophagy.

PLGA-Loaded Gold-Nanoparticles Precipitated with Quercetin Downregulate HDAC-Akt Activities Controlling Proliferation and Activate p53-ROS Crosstalk to Induce Apoptosis in Hepatocarcinoma Cells

Controlled release of medications remains the most convenient way to deliver drugs. In this study, we precipitated gold nanoparticles with quercetin. We loaded gold-quercetin into poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (NQ) and tested the biological activity of NQ on HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cells to acquire the sustained release property. We determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy that NQ effectively caused conformational changes in DNA and modulated different proteins related to epigenetic modifications and cell cycle control. The mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell cycle, apoptosis, DNA damage, and caspase 3 activity were analyzed by flow cytometry, and the expression profiles of different anti- and pro-apoptotic as well as epigenetic signals were studied by immunoblotting. A cytotoxicity assay indicated that NQ preferentially killed cancer cells, compared to normal cells. NQ interacted with HepG2 cell DNA and reduced histone deacetylases to control cell proliferation and arrest the cell cycle at the sub-G stage. Activities of cell cycle-related proteins, such as p21(WAF), cdk1, and pAkt, were modulated. NQ induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells by activating p53-ROS crosstalk and induces epigenetic modifications leading to inhibited proliferation and cell cycle arrest.

Small Heat Shock Protein Beta-1 (HSPB1) Is Upregulated and Regulates Autophagy and Apoptosis of Renal Tubular Cells in Acute Kidney Injury

Background

Heat shock protein beta-1 (HSPB1, also known as HSP27) is a small heat shock protein involved in many cellular processes and reportedly protects cells against oxidative stress. Autophagy protects cells from many types of stress and is thought to play a key role in preventing stress in acute kidney injury (AKI). However, little is known about the role of HSPB1 in autophagy and apoptosis in the pathogenesis of AKI.

Methods

We used a rat ischemia/reperfusion AKI model and cultured renal tubular cells as an in vitro model. To elucidate the regulation of HSPB1, we evaluated the promoter activity and expression of HSPB1 in normal rat kidney (NRK)-52E cells in the presence of H₂O₂. To examine the regulation of autophagy by HSPB1, we established NRK-light chain 3 (NRK-LC3) cells that were stably transfected with a fusion protein of green fluorescent protein and LC3.

Results

The results of immunohistological examination showed that HSPB1 was expressed in proximal tubule cells after AKI. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis showed that HSPB1 messenger RNA and protein expression were upregulated 6–72 h and 12–72 h, respectively, after ischemia/reperfusion injury. HSPB1 promoter activity as well as messenger RNA and protein expression indicated dose-dependent induction by H₂O₂. HSPB1 overexpression-induced autophagy in NRK-LC3 cells under normoxic conditions was confirmed with confocal microscopy, which revealed the presence of LC3-positive granules. Furthermore, H₂O₂-induced autophagy was inhibited by the transfection of small interfering RNAs for HSPB1. Overexpression of HSPB1 reduced BAX activation and H₂O₂-induced apoptosis, as measured by caspase 3 activity and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay.

Conclusions

We showed that HSPB1 expression increased during oxidative stress in AKI. Incremental HSPB1 expression increased autophagic flux and inhibited apoptosis in renal tubular cells. These results indicate that HSPB1 upregulation plays a role in the pathophysiology of AKI.

In Vitro Assessment of the Anticancer Potential of Evodiamine in Human Oral Cancer Cell Lines

Evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid, has been regarded as having antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anticancer properties. In the present study, we explored the effects of evodiamine on cell growth and apoptosis in human oral cancer cell lines. Our data revealed that evodiamine significantly inhibited the proliferation of human oral cancer cells and resulted in the cleavages of PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase) and caspase-3, in addition to causing the typical characteristics of apoptosis. Evodiamine also increased Bax protein levels and caused translocation of Bax into mitochondria and Bax oligomerization. In addition, evodiamine decreased expression of myeloid cell leukemia (Mcl-1) at the transcriptional modification, and knockdown of Mcl-1 clearly resulted in an increase in expression of Bax and active Bax, resulting in induction of apoptosis. Evodiamine reduced expression of phosphorylated AKT, and LY294002 potentiated evodiamine-induced apoptosis by regulating Mcl-1 protein. Our results suggest that evodiamine induces apoptosis in human oral cancer cells through the AKT pathway. These findings provide a rationale for its clinical application in the treatment of oral cancer.

Protosappanin B protects PC12 cells against oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced neuronal death by maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis via induction of ubiquitin-dependent p53 protein degradation

Protosappanin B (PTB) is a bioactive dibenzoxocin derivative isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L. Here, we investigated the neuroprotective effects and the potential mechanisms of PTB on oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-injured PC12 cells. Results showed that PTB significantly increased cell viability, inhibited cell apoptosis and up-regulated the expression of growth-associated protein 43 (a marker of neural outgrowth). Moreover, our study revealed that PTB effectively maintained mitochondrial homeostasis by up-regulation of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), inhibition of cytochrome c release from mitochondria and inactivation of mitochondrial caspase-9/3 apoptosis pathway. Further study showed that PTB significantly promoted cytoplasmic component degradation of p53 protein, a key negative regulator for mitochondrial function, resulting in a release of Bcl-2 from p53-Bcl-2 complex and an enhancing translocation of Bcl-2 to mitochondrial outer membrane. Finally, we found the degradation of p53 protein was induced by PTB via activation of a MDM2-dependent ubiquitination process. Taken together, our findings provided a new viewpoint of neuronal protection strategy for anoxia and ischemic injury with natural small molecular dibenzoxocin derivative by activating ubiquitin-dependent p53 protein degradation as well as increasing mitochondrial function.

Regulated cell death in AKI

AKI is pathologically characterized by sublethal and lethal damage of renal tubules. Under these conditions, renal tubular cell death may occur by regulated necrosis (RN) or apoptosis. In the last two decades, tubular apoptosis has been shown in preclinical models and some clinical samples from patients with AKI. Mechanistically, apoptotic cell death in AKI may result from well described extrinsic and intrinsic pathways as well as ER stress. Central converging nodes of these pathways are mitochondria, which become fragmented and sensitized to membrane permeabilization in response to cellular stress, resulting in the release of cell death-inducing factors. Whereas apoptosis is known to be regulated, tubular necrosis was thought to occur by accident until recent work unveiled several RN subroutines, most prominently receptor-interacting protein kinase-dependent necroptosis and RN induced by mitochondrial permeability transition. Additionally, other cell death pathways, like pyroptosis and ferroptosis, may also be of pathophysiologic relevance in AKI. Combination therapy targeting multiple cell-death pathways may, therefore, provide maximal therapeutic benefits.

Small-molecule Bax agonists for cancer therapy

Bax, a central death regulator, is required at the decisional stage of apoptosis. We recently identified serine 184 (S184) of Bax as a critical functional switch controlling its proapoptotic activity. Here, we employed the structural pocket around S184 as a docking site to screen the NCI library of small molecules using the UCSF-DOCK program suite. Three compounds, small molecule Bax agonists SMBA1, SMBA2 and SMBA3, induce conformational changes in Bax by blocking S184 phosphorylation, facilitating Bax insertion into mitochondrial membranes and forming Bax oligomers. The latter leads to cytochrome c release and apoptosis in human lung cancer cells, which occurs in a Bax- but not Bak-dependent fashion. SMBA1 potently suppresses lung tumor growth via apoptosis by selectively activating Bax in vivo without significant normal tissue toxicity. Development of Bax agonists as a new class of anti-cancer drugs offers a strategy for the treatment of lung cancer and other Bax-expressing malignancies.

CHOP mediates ASPP2-induced autophagic apoptosis in hepatoma cells by releasing Beclin-1 from Bcl-2 and inducing nuclear translocation of Bcl-2

Apoptosis-stimulating protein of p53-2 (ASPP2) induces apoptosis by promoting the expression of pro-apoptotic genes via binding to p53 or p73; however, the exact mechanisms by which ASPP2 induces apoptotic death in hepatoma cells are still unclear. Here, we show that the transient overexpression of ASPP2 induces autophagic apoptosis in hepatoma cells by promoting p53- or p73-independent C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) expression. CHOP expression decreases the expression of Bcl-2; this change releases Beclin-1 from cytoplasmic Bcl-2-Beclin-1 complexes and allows it to initiate autophagy. However, transient overexpression of Beclin-1 can induce autophagy but not apoptosis. Our results show that ASPP2 induces the expression of damage-regulated autophagy modulator (DRAM), another critical factor that cooperates with free Beclin-1 to induce autophagic apoptosis. The effect of CHOP on the translocation and sequestration of Bcl-2 in the nucleus, which requires the binding of Bcl-2 to ASPP2, is also critical for ASPP2-induced autophagic apoptosis. Although the role of nuclear ASPP2–Bcl-2 complexes is still unclear, our results suggest that nuclear ASPP2 can prevent the translocation of the remaining Bcl-2 to the cytoplasm by binding to Bcl-2 in a CHOP-dependent manner, and this effect also contributes to Beclin-1-initiated autophagy. Thus, CHOP is critical for mediating ASPP2-induced autophagic apoptosis by decreasing Bcl-2 expression and maintaining nuclear ASPP2–Bcl-2 complexes. Our results, which define a mechanism whereby ASPP2 overexpression induces autophagic apoptosis, open a new avenue for promoting autophagy in treatments to cure hepatocellular carcinoma.

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-C inhibits neuroretinal apoptosis in a murine model of focal retinal degeneration

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-C is a member of the PDGF family and is critical for neuronal survival in the central nervous system. We studied the possible survival and antiapoptotic effects of PDGF-C on focal retinal lesions in Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) on C57BL/6N [Crb1(rd8)] (DKO rd8) background mice, a model for progressive and focal retinal degeneration. We found no difference in transcript and protein expression of PDGF-C in the retina between DKO rd8 mice and wild type (WT, C57BL/6N). Recombinant PDGF-CC protein (500 ng/eye) was injected intravitreally into the right eye of DKO rd8 mice with phosphate-buffered saline as controls into the left eye. The retinal effects of PDGF-C were assessed by fundoscopy, ocular histopathology, A2E levels, apoptotic molecule analysis, and direct flat mount retinal vascular labeling. We found that the PDGF-CC-treated eyes showed slower progression or attenuation of the focal retinal lesions, lesser photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelial degeneration resulting in better-preserved photoreceptor structure. Lower expression of apoptotic molecules was detected in the PDGF-CC-treated eyes than in controls. In addition, no retinal neovascularization was observed after PDGF-CC treatment. Our results demonstrate that PDGF-C potently ameliorates photoreceptor degeneration via the suppression of apoptotic pathways without inducing retinal angiogenesis. The protective effects of PDGF-C suggest a novel alternative approach for potential age-related retinal degeneration treatment.

Mitochondrial channels: ion fluxes and more

The field of mitochondrial ion channels has recently seen substantial progress, including the molecular identification of some of the channels. An integrative approach using genetics, electrophysiology, pharmacology, and cell biology to clarify the roles of these channels has thus become possible. It is by now clear that many of these channels are important for energy supply by the mitochondria and have a major impact on the fate of the entire cell as well. The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date overview of the electrophysiological properties, molecular identity, and pathophysiological functions of the mitochondrial ion channels studied so far and to highlight possible therapeutic perspectives based on current information.

Suppression of colorectal cancer liver metastasis by apolipoprotein(a) kringle V in a nude mouse model through the induction of apoptosis in tumor-associated endothelial cells

The formation of liver metastases in colorectal cancer patients is the primary cause of patient death. Current therapies directed at liver metastasis from colorectal cancer have had minimal impact on patient outcomes. Therefore, the development of alternative treatment strategies for liver metastasis is needed. In the present study, we demonstrated that recombinant human apolipoprotein(a) kringle V, also known as rhLK8, induced the apoptotic turnover of endothelial cells in vitro through the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The interaction of rhLK8 with glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) may be involved in the induction of apoptosis because the inhibition of GRP78 by GRP78-specific antibodies or siRNA knockdown inhibited the rhLK8-mediated apoptosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. Next, to evaluate the effects of rhLK8 on angiogenesis and metastasis, an experimental model of liver metastasis was established by injecting a human colorectal cancer cell line, LS174T, into the spleens of BALB/c nude mice. The systemic administration of rhLK8 significantly suppressed liver metastasis from human colorectal cancer cells and improved host survival compared with controls. The combination of rhLK8 and 5-fluorouracil substantially increased these survival benefits compared with either therapy alone. Histological observation showed significant induction of apoptosis among tumor-associated endothelial cells in liver metastases from rhLK8-treated mice compared with control mice. Collectively, these results suggest that the combination of rhLK8 with conventional chemotherapy may be a promising approach for the treatment of patients with life-threatening colorectal cancer liver metastases.

miR-138 protects cardiomyocytes from hypoxia-induced apoptosis via MLK3/JNK/c-jun pathway

Cardiomyocytes experience a series of complex endogenous regulatory mechanisms against apoptosis induced by chronic hypoxia. MicroRNAs are a class of endogenous small non-coding RNAs that regulate cellular pathophysiological processes. Recently, microRNA-138 (miR-138) has been found related to hypoxia, and beneficial for cell proliferation. Therefore, we intend to study the role of miR-138 in hypoxic cardiomyocytes and the main mechanism. Myocardial samples of patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) were collected to test miR-138 expression. Agomir or antagomir of miR-138 was transfected into H9C2 cells to investigate its effect on cell apoptosis. Higher miR-138 expression was observed in patients with cyanotic CHD, and its expression gradually increased with prolonged hypoxia time in H9C2 cells. Using MTT and LDH assays, cell growth was significantly greater in the agomir group than in the negative control (NC) group, while antagomir decreased cell survival. Dual luciferase reporter gene and Western-blot results confirmed MLK3 was a direct target of miR-138. It was found that miR-138 attenuated hypoxia-induced apoptosis using TUNEL, Hoechst staining and Annexin V-PE/7-AAD flow cytometry analysis. We further detected expression of apoptosis-related proteins. In the agomir group, the level of pro-apoptotic proteins such as cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-PARP and Bad significantly reduced, while Bcl-2 and Bcl-2/Bax ratio increased. Opposite changes were observed in the antagomir group. Downstream targets of MLK3, JNK and c-jun, were also suppressed by miR-138. Our study demonstrates that up-regulation of miR-138 plays a protective role in myocardial adaptation to chronic hypoxia, which is mediated mainly by MLK3/JNK/c-jun signaling pathway.