Longitudinal Changes of Functional Capacities Among Adolescent Female Basketball Players

Age and Sex Differences in Physical Performance Among Adolescent Team Sport Athletes

The study aimed to explore the differences in physical performance characteristics across various age groups (U14, U16, and U18) and sexes in adolescent team sport athletes. 473 adolescent Norwegian football and handball players were recruited for anthropometrical and physical performance testing. Performance improved with age in both boys and girls, showing significant differences between age categories. Across all tests, boys outperformed girls, and the sex difference doubled from U14 to U16, such as -5.1% to -10.3% for 30 m sprint, -5.6% to -9.8% for change of direction (CoD), 11% to 21% for countermovement jump (CMJ), and from 5% to 16% for relative strength. No further increase in differences between sexes was observed in the U18 age group. All age groups showed substantial intragroup variability in physical performance tests and anthropometric measures. The main findings from the study were increased sex differences from U14 to U16, but no further increase in sex difference from U16 to U18s as well as considerable individual variation in performance. Girls, maturing earlier than boys and showing less physical performance development, may benefit from earlier introduction to strength training to boost their physical development. Moreover, the considerable individual variation underscores the need for tailored individualized programs.

'Train less and still similarly improve?' Maturational growth is more influential than training engagement on performance indices development in volleyball

Identifying factors which more or less account for performance improvement during developmental stages is essential for sports science knowledge and coaching practice. Accordingly, this study examined the longitudinal, changing, influences of Volleyball-specific Training Engagement (VTE) and Maturity Status on physical test performance development. Participants were N = 139 Swiss female competitive volleyball players, aged 10-14 years at baseline (M = 12.93, SD = 1.15 years). Annually for 3 years, participants completed the 9-3-6-3-9 Agility Sprint; Standing Long Jump [SLJ] and Jump & Reach test. Linear Mixed Models (LMMs) examined longitudinal independent and interactive relationships between VTE (hours/week) and Maturity Status (YPHV) with test performance indices. LMMs identified both interactive and independent relationships on test indices. Interactions highlighted the influence of VTE generally reduced during peak-post maturational stages (- 0.5-2.5 YPHV), while maturational growth was predominantly more influential on performance development. Findings identified that lowered weekly VTE during maturational peak-post growth periods led to equivalent performance development. With maturational growth more influential, findings highlight the potential to misattribute longitudinal performance development toward training engagement and question the benefit of heightened physiological-focused engagement circa-post PHV stages. However, such questioning may not necessarily apply to skill acquisition or technical-focused training.

The effects of body size and training environment on the physical performance of adolescent basketball players: the INEX study

BACKGROUND

Although adolescent basketballers differ in body size, shape, and composition, less is known about how these factors interact during physical development.

AIM

We used ontogenetic allometry to identify the optimal body size and shape characteristics associated with physical performance in adolescent basketball players, and investigated the effects of training experience, training volume, maturity status, and club characteristics on physical performance development.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Two hundred and sixty-four male basketballers, from five age-cohorts (11-15 years of age), were followed consecutively over three years. Three physical performance components, anthropometrics, training information, and biological maturation were assessed bi-annually. Longitudinal multiplicative allometric models were developed.

RESULTS

Players with a physique that had a dominant ectomorphic component performed better in all physical performance components. When adjusting for confounders other than size, the development of running speed was independent of body size. Players advanced in maturation were physically fitter. Training data had no significant effect on developmental trajectories of running speed or lower body explosive strength. Club characteristics had no significant association with any physical performance trajectories.

CONCLUSION

Leaner players have advantages in physical performance and individual characteristics play an important role, over and beyond club structure, in developing physical performance.

Does early specialization provide an advantage in physical fitness development in youth basketball?

The present study examined the influence of the specialization onset on the magnitude and patterns of changes in basketball-specific physical fitness within a competitive season and developmental fitness trends between 11 and 17 years in young basketball players. Repeated measures of 181 young basketball players (female, n = 40; male, n = 141) were examined. Anthropometry, age, estimated maturity status, and basketball-specific physical fitness (assessed with the countermovement jump, line drill, and yo-yo intermittent recovery level-1 and fitness score) were considered. Players were grouped by the onset of specialization as related to biological maturation milestones (pre-puberty, mid-puberty, and late-puberty specialization). The within-season and developmental changes in physical fitness were fitted using multilevel modeling in a fully Bayesian framework. The fitness outcomes were similar between-player and within-player changes when grouped by specialization across a season. Fitness improvements across a season were apparent for female players, while male players maintained their performance levels. There was no variation in the patterns of physical fitness development between 11 and 17 years associated with the onset of specialization. Conditional on our data and models, the assumption that early sport specialization provides a physical fitness advantage for future athletic success does not hold.

Does predicted age at peak height velocity explain physical performance in U13-15 basketball female players?

Background

The aims of the study were (1) to identify the physical fitness and basic anthropometric characteristics of Polish female basketball players aged 13–15 years, (2) to show the effect of maturity timing on the performance in motor tests and basic body composition parameters, (3) to identify the index that contributes most to the prediction of performance in the tests of speed, jumping ability, agility, and endurance.

Methods

The sample included 904 female Polish players (U13–15). In part 1, maturity timing category distribution were examined within across age-groups. Maturity timing was followed by grouping with respect to years before or after the observed peak high velocity (PHV): PHV0 (− 0.50 to 0.49), PHV1 (0.50 to 1.49), PHV2 (1.50 to 2.49) and PHV3 (2.50 to 3.49). In part 2, the relationship between the anthropometric variables, physical fitness performance was assessed based on maturity timing categories (ANCOVA analysis). In part 3, backward stepwise multiple regression analyse quantified the relationship between maturity timing (group of PHV) and physical performance.

Results

ANCOVA results (age, body height, and body mass as covariates) showed in the U13 female basketball players significantly higher sprinting (20 m), jumping ability and endurance tests results of the PHV1 group. Better results was observed in U14 female players in PHV1 compared to PHV2 and PHV3 in 20 m and jumping tests but opposite trend was observed for 5 m sprint and endurance test (distance covered and VO2_max). U15 basketball players from the PHV3 group were characterized by better results of jumping abilities, endurance, 10 m and 20 m sprint and agility (total, S₄) tests. Maturity timing (10 m), chronological age (5 m, 20 m, agility, SVJ, VJ, and VO_2max tests), body height (10 m), body mass (10 m, 20 m, VJ, VO_2max), and the interaction between body mass and height (SVJ) were significant (adjusted R² = 0.02–0.10; p < 0.001) predictors of motor skills.

Conclusion

Trainng content of female basketball players aged 13–15 years old should be adjusted to biological requirements especially in jumping, endurance and 20 m sprint test. The time from peak height velocity (PHV) was a significant predictor only in the 10 m sprint test.

Modelling the dynamics of change in the technical skills of young basketball players: The INEX study

Although technical skills are a prerequisite for success in basketball, little is known about how they develop over time. In this study, we model the trajectories of technical skill development in young basketball players and investigate the effects of training experience, training volume, body composition, maturity status, physical performance, and club characteristics on skill development. A total of 264 male basketballers from five age-cohorts (11 to 15 years of age) were followed consecutively over three years using a mixed-longitudinal design. Technical skills, training experience and volume, basic anthropometrics, body composition, biological maturation and physical performance were assessed bi-annually. A multilevel hierarchical linear model was used for trajectory analysis. Non-linear trends (p < 0.01) were observed in speed shot shooting, control dribble, defensive movement, slalom sprint, and slalom dribble. Being more experienced and physically fitter had a significant (p < 0.05) positive effect on technical skill development; greater fat-free mass negatively affected skills demanding quick running and rapid changes of direction with or without the ball (p < 0.05). Training volume and biological age did not explain differences in technical skill development (p > 0.05). Moreover, belonging to different clubs had no significant influence on the technical skills trajectories of players. Our findings highlight the important role that individual differences play, over and beyond club structure, in developing skills. Findings improve our understanding on how technical skills develop during adolescence through training, growth, and biological maturation.

Effect of scaling basket height for young basketball players during the competition: seeking out positive sport experiences

Proper scaling of sports equipment is necessary to ensure an optimal teaching-learning process . This study aimed to analyse the effect of reducing basket height on the technical-tactical actions, physical participation, self-efficacy, cooperation and enjoyment of young basketball players in the competition. 51 under-14 male basketball players from four teams were chosen as the sample. The data collection included 2,286 attack phases during 12 matches. All players competed in two tournaments using official basketball rules but different basket heights (official basket height, 3.05 metres, and modified basket height, 2.80 metres). The dependent variables were: a) types of shooting actions, shot efficacy, and shooting conditions; b) the duration, type, number of passes done, and efficacy of the attack phases; c) heart rate values; and d) perception of specific and physical self-efficacy, collective efficacy, cooperation, and enjoyment. The results show that the scaled basket promoted game styles that increased the occurrence of fast-breaks and long positional attack phase. Shot efficacy for all shot types improved (not-significantly) and brought change in players' specific self-efficacy and enjoyment. These findings show that scaling equipment can help the transition from mini-basket to regular basket (under-14 age group) by generating better conditions for players' development.

Change of Direction Speed Tests in Basketball Players: A Brief Review of Test Varieties and Recent Trends

Change of direction speed (CODS) is essential for basketball performance, extensively assessed by various tests. This review aimed to summarize the CODS test varieties for basketball players on publications until 2019 and identify recent trends regarding what types of tests have gained attention in the 2010s. Electronic literature searches were conducted using three databases with relevant keywords. 104 studies were found eligible, conducting CODS tests 159 times in total with 48 test varieties. To facilitate distinctions between the tests, each test was categorized into one of three types based on the distinctive movement characteristics and changing angles as follows: Defensive (involving lateral shuffling), 180°-turn (exerting only 180°-turns), and Cutting (performing diagonal- or side-cut). We then counted the number of publications and adopted times reported per year for each test, and calculated the adoption rate for each categorized test type. The first CODS test performed in basketball players was the T-Test, reported in 1991, and this was the most commonly adopted test (44/159 times). The 2010s saw abrupt increases in the number of publications (1990s-2000s-2010s: 5-9-90) and test varieties (4-7-44). The adoption rates in the 2010s were similar among the three types (i.e., Defensive/180°-turn/Cutting: 37%/30%/33%), with the Cutting type gradually increasing over the last three decades (1990s-2000s-2010s: 0%-9%-33%). These results suggest that while CODS performances in basketball players are increasingly studied with various tests, recent studies give equal weight to all of the three categorized test types, with increasing adoption of the Cutting type, to assess specific CODS performances.

Revisiting the Relative Age Effect From a Multidisciplinary Perspective in Youth Basketball: A Bayesian Analysis

Relative age effect (RAE) is considered to bias the selection of young athletes and a cause of exclusion of many participants. The goal of the study was to unveil the effects of the birth quarter on physical performances and a set of psychological constructs in the age groups corresponding to the specialization years. A set of surveys with cross-sectional data collected from 2015 to 2019 in youth basketball was used. Three hundred and twenty-seven Brazilian players (127 females, 100 males), mean age 14.0 years, participated in the study. Counter-movement jump, line-drill, yoyo intermittent test, achievement goals, motivation for deliberate practice, and enjoyment were measured. Bayesian multilevel regression was performed. RAE was observed but its advantages did not persist and did not differentiate the players in the variables under scrutiny. The only predictor of athletic and psychological outcomes was chronological age. The initial advantage that triggered the coaches' decision to select individual players disappears during the specialization years. Coaches must overcome the superficial observation of young athletes based only on age groups and actual performances, avoiding hasty decisions that, unlike RAE, last in time and cannot be reversed.

Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis

BACKGROUND

Early sport specialization has increased its popularity mostly based on the deliberate practice theory premises. In this study, we examined the influence of the age of onset of deliberate basketball practice on body size, functional performance (countermovement jump, line drill and yo-yo intermittent recovery level 1), motivation for achievement and competitiveness, motivation for deliberate practice and sources of enjoyment among young Brazilian basketball players. In addition, we adjusted for the influence of gender, age group, maturity status and state basketball federation on the outcomes.

METHODS

The sample included 120 female and 201 male adolescent basketball players aged 14.0 (1.7) years, on average. We grouped players by the age of onset of deliberate basketball practice as related to biologic maturation milestones (pre-puberty deliberate practice onset, mid-puberty deliberate practice onset and late-puberty deliberate practice onset).

RESULTS

There was no substantial variation among contrasting players by the onset of deliberate practice in all of the outcomes. Adjusting for gender, male players with late-puberty deliberate practice onset had better functional performance than players with pre- and mid-puberty onset of practice. Females players with late-puberty deliberate practice onset had slightly worst functional performance than players with pre- and mid-puberty onset of practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Early deliberate basketball practice does not appear to provide an advantage for the development of physiological functions. Likewise, enjoyment, motivation for deliberate practice and motivation for achievement and competition do not appear to be negatively influenced by early deliberate basketball practice. The debate about the relationship between time spent in deliberate practice and performance development in young athletes will need to emphasize the coaching pedagogical quality and the training environment and account for informal practice and deliberate play.

Performance, motivation, and enjoyment in young female basketball players: An interdisciplinary approach

The purpose of this study was to examine the variation in accumulated basketball training experience, body size, functional performance, deliberate practice motivation, achievement and competitiveness motivation and sources of enjoyment among young female basketball players, partitioning the potential variation by individuals´ biological characteristics (menarche status) and contextual characteristics (competitive age group and competitive level). We considered 114 adolescent female basketball players aged 14.3 (1.8) years. We used multilevel regression and poststratification estimations. The adolescent female basketball players selected for state-level had more accumulated experience, were taller and with better functional performance. Conditional on the data, youth female coaches tend to value (probably overvalue) size and function when selecting/promoting players, even at early age groups, likely contributing to an overrepresentation of early maturing girls in at early age groups. Players from club- and state-level were similarly highly motivated for deliberate practice and to achievement. Only for competitiveness, state-level players had higher values than club level players. The sources of enjoyment were influenced by context (competitive levels) for self-referenced competencies and others-referenced competencies. Structured programs of training and competition in youth female basketball provide a nurturing environment for the development of players´ engagement and commitment to training and excellence attainment.