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Muñoz‐Romo M, Page RA, Kunz TH. Redefining the study of sexual dimorphism in bats: following the odour trail. Mamm Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Richardson CS, Heeren T, Kunz TH. Seasonal and Sexual Variation in Metabolism, Thermoregulation, and Hormones in the Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus). Physiol Biochem Zool 2018; 91:705-715. [DOI: 10.1086/695424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Langwig KE, Frick WF, Hoyt JR, Parise KL, Drees KP, Kunz TH, Foster JT, Kilpatrick AM. Drivers of variation in species impacts for a multi-host fungal disease of bats. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0456. [PMID: 28080982 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Disease can play an important role in structuring species communities because the effects of disease vary among hosts; some species are driven towards extinction, while others suffer relatively little impact. Why disease impacts vary among host species remains poorly understood for most multi-host pathogens, and factors allowing less-susceptible species to persist could be useful in conserving highly affected species. White-nose syndrome (WNS), an emerging fungal disease of bats, has decimated some species while sympatric and closely related species have experienced little effect. We analysed data on infection prevalence, fungal loads and environmental factors to determine how variation in infection among sympatric host species influenced the severity of WNS population impacts. Intense transmission resulted in almost uniformly high prevalence in all species. By contrast, fungal loads varied over 3 orders of magnitude among species, and explained 98% of the variation among species in disease impacts. Fungal loads increased with hibernating roosting temperatures, with bats roosting at warmer temperatures having higher fungal loads and suffering greater WNS impacts. We also found evidence of a threshold fungal load, above which the probability of mortality may increase sharply, and this threshold was similar for multiple species. This study demonstrates how differences in behavioural traits among species-in this case microclimate preferences-that may have been previously adaptive can be deleterious after the introduction of a new pathogen. Management to reduce pathogen loads rather than exposure may be an effective way of reducing disease impact and preventing species extinctions.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.
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McCracken GF, Safi K, Kunz TH, Dechmann DKN, Swartz SM, Wikelski M. Airplane tracking documents the fastest flight speeds recorded for bats. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160398. [PMID: 28018618 PMCID: PMC5180116 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The performance capabilities of flying animals reflect the interplay of biomechanical and physiological constraints and evolutionary innovation. Of the two extant groups of vertebrates that are capable of powered flight, birds are thought to fly more efficiently and faster than bats. However, fast-flying bat species that are adapted for flight in open airspace are similar in wing shape and appear to be similar in flight dynamics to fast-flying birds that exploit the same aerial niche. Here, we investigate flight behaviour in seven free-flying Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) and report that the maximum ground speeds achieved exceed speeds previously documented for any bat. Regional wind modelling indicates that bats adjusted flight speeds in response to winds by flying more slowly as wind support increased and flying faster when confronted with crosswinds, as demonstrated for insects, birds and other bats. Increased frequency of pauses in wing beats at faster speeds suggests that flap-gliding assists the bats' rapid flight. Our results suggest that flight performance in bats has been underappreciated and that functional differences in the flight abilities of birds and bats require re-evaluation.
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Reynolds S, Kunz TH. Changes in body composition during reproduction and postnatal growth in the little brown bat,Myotis lucifugus(Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae). ECOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/11956860.2000.11682565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Kunz TH, Wrazen JA, Burnett CD. Changes in body mass and fat reserves in pre-hibernating little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus). ECOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/11956860.1998.11682443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Rex K, Czaczkes BI, Michener R, Kunz TH, Voigt CC. Specialization and omnivory in diverse mammalian assemblages. ECOSCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.2980/17-1-3294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Wilder AP, Kunz TH, Sorenson MD. Population genetic structure of a common host predicts the spread of white-nose syndrome, an emerging infectious disease in bats. Mol Ecol 2015; 24:5495-506. [PMID: 26407297 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Landscape complexity influences patterns of animal dispersal, which in turn may affect both gene flow and the spread of pathogens. White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an introduced fungal disease that has spread rapidly throughout eastern North America, causing massive mortality in bat populations. We tested for a relationship between the population genetic structure of the most common host, the little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus), and the geographic spread of WNS to date by evaluating logistic regression models of WNS risk among hibernating colonies in eastern North America. We hypothesized that risk of WNS to susceptible host colonies should increase with both geographic proximity and genetic similarity, reflecting historical connectivity, to infected colonies. Consistent with this hypothesis, inclusion of genetic distance between infected and susceptible colonies significantly improved models of disease spread, capturing heterogeneity in the spatial expansion of WNS despite low levels of genetic differentiation among eastern populations. Expanding our genetic analysis to the continental range of little brown myotis reveals strongly contrasting patterns of population structure between eastern and western North America. Genetic structure increases markedly moving westward into the northern Great Plains, beyond the current distribution of WNS. In western North America, genetic differentiation of geographically proximate populations often exceeds levels observed across the entire eastern region, suggesting infrequent and/or locally restricted dispersal, and thus relatively limited opportunities for pathogen introduction in western North America. Taken together, our analyses suggest a possibly slower future rate of spread of the WNS pathogen, at least as mediated by little brown myotis.
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Langwig KE, Frick WF, Reynolds R, Parise KL, Drees KP, Hoyt JR, Cheng TL, Kunz TH, Foster JT, Kilpatrick AM. Host and pathogen ecology drive the seasonal dynamics of a fungal disease, white-nose syndrome. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142335. [PMID: 25473016 PMCID: PMC4286034 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Seasonal patterns in pathogen transmission can influence the impact of disease on populations and the speed of spatial spread. Increases in host contact rates or births drive seasonal epidemics in some systems, but other factors may occasionally override these influences. White-nose syndrome, caused by the emerging fungal pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans, is spreading across North America and threatens several bat species with extinction. We examined patterns and drivers of seasonal transmission of P. destructans by measuring infection prevalence and pathogen loads in six bat species at 30 sites across the eastern United States. Bats became transiently infected in autumn, and transmission spiked in early winter when bats began hibernating. Nearly all bats in six species became infected by late winter when infection intensity peaked. In summer, despite high contact rates and a birth pulse, most bats cleared infections and prevalence dropped to zero. These data suggest the dominant driver of seasonal transmission dynamics was a change in host physiology, specifically hibernation. Our study is the first, to the best of our knowledge, to describe the seasonality of transmission in this emerging wildlife disease. The timing of infection and fungal growth resulted in maximal population impacts, but only moderate rates of spatial spread.
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Meyer CFJ, Aguiar LMS, Aguirre LF, Baumgarten J, Clarke FM, Cosson JF, Estrada Villegas S, Fahr J, Faria D, Furey N, Henry M, Jenkins RKB, Kunz TH, Cristina MacSwiney González M, Moya I, Pons JM, Racey PA, Rex K, Sampaio EM, Stoner KE, Voigt CC, von Staden D, Weise CD, Kalko EKV. Species undersampling in tropical bat surveys: effects on emerging biodiversity patterns. J Anim Ecol 2014; 84:113-23. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Southworth LO, Holick MF, Chen TC, Kunz TH. Effects of sunlight on behavior and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in two species of Old World fruit bats. DERMATO-ENDOCRINOLOGY 2014; 5:192-8. [PMID: 24494054 PMCID: PMC3897589 DOI: 10.4161/derm.24020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Revised: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED It has long been accepted that most vertebrate animals meet their vitamin D requirements from exposure of skin to UV-B (UV-B) radiation. Many factors affect this endogenous synthesis of vitamin D, including season, latitude, time of day, age, presence of hair, and degree of skin pigmentation. Most bats roost in dark places by day and forage at night, and thus have little or no potential for sunlight exposure. Notwithstanding, some tropical species are diurnal and are known to roost in the canopy of trees where they may be exposed to sunlight for up to 12 h each day. In this study, two species of captive tropical bats (both species are active at night but one, Rousettus aegyptiacus, roosts in caves, tombs, and buildings, whereas the other, Pteropus hypomelanus, roosts in trees) were evaluated for their ability to endogenously synthesize vitamin D. Following timed periods of sunlight exposure, blood plasma was analyzed using a competitive protein binding assay (CPBA) to determine concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], the major circulating vitamin D metabolite. The ability to photoconvert provitamin D (7-dehydrocholesterol, 7-DHC) in the sub-tropical winter was determined using sunlight exposed borosilicate samples of 7-DHC in hourly increments. Finally, both species were evaluated in their preference for a roost site by the release of individuals into sunlight or shade in timed trials. OUR RESULTS SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESES (1) when exposed to natural sunlight, both species exhibited an ability to endogenously synthesize vitamin D, although significant differences were found between the two, (2) photoconversion of 7-DHC to previtamin D3 is possible during the mid-day hours of a sub-tropical winter day and (3) captive, cave roosting R. aegyptiacus will choose shaded roost sites while captive P. hypomelanus will show no preference for either shade or sun.
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Yates DE, Adams EM, Angelo SE, Evers DC, Schmerfeld J, Moore MS, Kunz TH, Divoll T, Edmonds ST, Perkins C, Taylor R, O'Driscoll NJ. Mercury in bats from the northeastern United States. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2014; 23:45-55. [PMID: 24271419 PMCID: PMC3884133 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-013-1150-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
This study examines mercury exposure in bats across the northeast U.S. from 2005 to 2009. We collected 1,481 fur and 681 blood samples from 8 states and analyzed them for total Hg. A subset (n = 20) are also analyzed for methylmercury (MeHg). Ten species of bats from the northeast U.S. are represented in this study of which two are protected by the Endangered Species Act (ESA 1973) and two other species are pending review. There are four objectives in this paper: (1) to examine correlates to differences in fur-Hg levels among all of the sampling sites, including age, sex, species, and presence of a Hg point source; (2) define the relationship between blood and fur-Hg levels and the factors that influence that relationship including age, sex, species, reproductive status, and energetic condition; (3) determine the relationships between total Hg and MeHg in five common eastern bat species; and (4) assess the distribution of Hg across bat populations in the northeast. We found total blood and fur mercury was eight times higher in bats captured near point sources compared to nonpoint sources. Blood-Hg and fur-Hg were well correlated with females on average accumulating two times more Hg in fur than males. On average fur MeHg accounted for 86 % (range 71-95 %) of the total Hg in bat fur. Considering that females had high Hg concentrations, beyond that of established levels of concern, suggests there could be negative implications for bat populations from high Hg exposure since Hg is readily transferred to pups via breast milk. Bats provide an integral part of the ecosystem and their protection is considered to be of high priority. More research is needed to determine if Hg is a stressor that is negatively impacting bat populations.
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Hodgkison R, Ayasse M, Häberlein C, Schulz S, Zubaid A, Mustapha WAW, Kunz TH, Kalko EKV. Fruit bats and bat fruits: the evolution of fruit scent in relation to the foraging behaviour of bats in the New and Old World tropics. Funct Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Chaverri G, Gillam EH, Kunz TH. A call-and-response system facilitates group cohesion among disc-winged bats. Behav Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ars188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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McCracken GF, Westbrook JK, Brown VA, Eldridge M, Federico P, Kunz TH. Bats track and exploit changes in insect pest populations. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43839. [PMID: 22952782 PMCID: PMC3432057 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of bats or any generalist predator in suppressing prey populations depends on the predator's ability to track and exploit available prey. Using a qPCR fecal DNA assay, we document significant association between numbers of Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) consuming corn earworm (CEW) moths (Helicoverpa zea) and seasonal fluctuations in CEW populations. This result is consistent with earlier research linking the bats' diet to patterns of migration, abundance, and crop infestation by important insect pests. Here we confirm opportunistic feeding on one of the world's most destructive insects and support model estimates of the bats' ecosystem services. Regression analysis of CEW consumption versus the moth's abundance at four insect trapping sites further indicates that bats track local abundance of CEW within the regional landscape. Estimates of CEW gene copies in the feces of bats are not associated with seasonal or local patterns of CEW abundance, and results of captive feeding experiments indicate that our qPCR assay does not provide a direct measure of numbers or biomass of prey consumed. Our results support growing evidence for the role of generalist predators, and bats specifically, as agents for biological control and speak to the value of conserving indigenous generalist predators.
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Frick WF, Stepanian PM, Kelly JF, Howard KW, Kuster CM, Kunz TH, Chilson PB. Climate and weather impact timing of emergence of bats. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42737. [PMID: 22876331 PMCID: PMC3411708 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Interest in forecasting impacts of climate change have heightened attention in recent decades to how animals respond to variation in climate and weather patterns. One difficulty in determining animal response to climate variation is lack of long-term datasets that record animal behaviors over decadal scales. We used radar observations from the national NEXRAD network of Doppler weather radars to measure how group behavior in a colonially-roosting bat species responded to annual variation in climate and daily variation in weather over the past 11 years. Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) form dense aggregations in cave roosts in Texas. These bats emerge from caves daily to forage at high altitudes, which makes them detectable with Doppler weather radars. Timing of emergence in bats is often viewed as an adaptive trade-off between emerging early and risking predation or increased competition and emerging late which restricts foraging opportunities. We used timing of emergence from five maternity colonies of Brazilian free-tailed bats in south-central Texas during the peak lactation period (15 June–15 July) to determine whether emergence behavior was associated with summer drought conditions and daily temperatures. Bats emerged significantly earlier during years with extreme drought conditions than during moist years. Bats emerged later on days with high surface temperatures in both dry and moist years, but there was no relationship between surface temperatures and timing of emergence in summers with normal moisture levels. We conclude that emergence behavior is a flexible animal response to climate and weather conditions and may be a useful indicator for monitoring animal response to long-term shifts in climate.
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Chilson PB, Frick WF, Stepanian PM, Shipley JR, Kunz TH, Kelly JF. Estimating animal densities in the aerosphere using weather radar: ToZor not toZ? Ecosphere 2012. [DOI: 10.1890/es12-00027.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Ramoni-Perazzi P, Muñoz-Romo M, Chaves LF, Kunz TH. Range prediction for the Giant Fruit-Eating Bat,Artibeus amplus(Phyllostomidae: Stenodermatinae) in South America. STUDIES ON NEOTROPICAL FAUNA AND ENVIRONMENT 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/01650521.2012.679485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Langwig KE, Frick WF, Bried JT, Hicks AC, Kunz TH, Kilpatrick AM. Sociality, density-dependence and microclimates determine the persistence of populations suffering from a novel fungal disease, white-nose syndrome. Ecol Lett 2012; 15:1050-7. [PMID: 22747672 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01829.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Revised: 05/08/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Disease has caused striking declines in wildlife and threatens numerous species with extinction. Theory suggests that the ecology and density-dependence of transmission dynamics can determine the probability of disease-caused extinction, but few empirical studies have simultaneously examined multiple factors influencing disease impact. We show, in hibernating bats infected with Geomyces destructans, that impacts of disease on solitary species were lower in smaller populations, whereas in socially gregarious species declines were equally severe in populations spanning four orders of magnitude. However, as these gregarious species declined, we observed decreases in social group size that reduced the likelihood of extinction. In addition, disease impacts in these species increased with humidity and temperature such that the coldest and driest roosts provided initial refuge from disease. These results expand our theoretical framework and provide an empirical basis for determining which host species are likely to be driven extinct while management action is still possible.
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Muñoz-Romo M, Nielsen LT, Nassar JM, Kunz TH. Chemical Composition of the Substances from Dorsal Patches of Males of the CuraÇAoan Long-Nosed Bat,Leptonycteris curasoae(Phyllostomidae: Glossophaginae). ACTA CHIROPTEROLOGICA 2012. [DOI: 10.3161/150811012x654411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Reichard JD, Kunz TH, Keller C, Prajapati SI. Vascular Contrast Enhanced Micro-CT Imaging of “Radiators” in the Brazilian Free-Tailed Bat (Tadarida brasiliensis). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Kelly JF, Shipley JR, Chilson PB, Howard KW, Frick WF, Kunz TH. Quantifying animal phenology in the aerosphere at a continental scale using NEXRAD weather radars. Ecosphere 2012. [DOI: 10.1890/es11-00257.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Muñoz-Garcia A, Ro J, Reichard JD, Kunz TH, Williams JB. Cutaneous water loss and lipids of the stratum corneum in two syntopic species of bats. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2012; 161:208-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Reichard JD, Kunz TH, Keller C, Prajapati SI. Vascular Contrast Enhanced Micro-CT Imaging of “Radiators” in the Brazilian Free-Tailed Bat (Tadarida Brasiliensis). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2012; 295:563-6. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Fletcher C, Akbar Z, Kunz TH. Fruit diet of frugivorous bats (Cynopterus brachyotis and Cynopterus horsfieldii) in tropical hill forests of Peninsular Malaysia. MAMMALIA 2012. [DOI: 10.1515/mammalia-2011-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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