Five new polyacetylenes from a sponge of the genus petrosia

Petrocortynes D-H, novel C46 polyacetylenes, were isolated from a sponge of the genus Petrosia collected from Keomun Island, Korea. Petrocortyne D (2) is a 4,5-dihydro derivative of a diastereomer of petrocortyne A (1), and petrocortynes E-H (3-6) possess an additional allylic-hydroxyl group. The structures of these compounds were determined by combined chemical and spectral methods, and absolute configurations of most of the asymmetric carbon centers were determined by the modified Mosher's method. Limitations on the application of Mosher's method to allylic alcohols is discussed. Petrocortynes D-H exhibited moderate cytotoxicity and inhibitory activity against PLA2.

Genomic structure and promoter analysis of the p62 gene encoding a non-proteasomal multiubiquitin chain binding protein

p62 is a novel immediate early response gene encoding a ubiquitin chain binding protein. To investigate the mechanism of p62 gene expression, we isolated and characterized the 20 kb long human p62 gene. The p62 gene contains seven introns and eight exons. The splice sites conformed to the GT/AG rule, except introns 6 and 7 which used the unusual GC dinucleotides. The p62 promoter is TATA-less, and 357 nucleotides of the 5'-flanking region contain basic machineries for transcription. A reporter gene linked to 1800 nucleotides of the 5'-flanking region was rapidly activated by various extracellular signals. The presence of a CpG island as well as multiple binding sites for SP-1, AP-1, NF-kappaB, and Ets-1 family in the promoter region supports the regulated activation of the p62 gene.

Quantitation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus RNA in semen by single-tube reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is in boar semen for extended periods of time as determined by reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR) assay. The concentration of PRRSV RNA in semen and the biological significance of the detection level, however, remain to be resolved. In order to determine the concentration of PRRSV VR-2332 (a prototypic strain of North American isolates) in semen following infection, we established a 'standard curve'-quantitative competitive (SC-QC)-RT-nPCR assay as well as an equimolar QC-RT-nPCR assay. A deletion-type competitor RNA derived from the Lelystad virus, a European strain of PRRSV, ORF-7 gene standard which shares the nested sets of primer recognition sequences with the VR-2332 ORF-7 gene was used as an internal standard. The equimolar QC-RT-nPCR assay results revealed that the number of copies of PRRSV RNA in 1 TCID50/ml of virus derived from CL-2621 cell culture supernatants varied depending upon the type of samples in which virus was added; 143 +/- 24.0 and 266.5 +/- 48.5 copies in serum and semen samples spiked with PRRSV VR-2332, respectively. For the establishment of SC-QC-RT-nPCR assay, a standard curve was generated from band intensity ratios versus a series of known initial numbers of wild-type RNA copies which were quantified by the equimolar QC-RT-nPCR assay. Various initial numbers of copies of wild-type PRRSV RNA and each band intensity ratio with 1000 copies of competitor RNA were well correlated within the range of 100 to 200,000 copies (R2 = 0.947). A 'standard curve' quantitation assay using competitive single-tube RT-nPCR will offer a rapid and reliable way to quantify low concentrations of PRRSV RNA in semen.

Sesquiterpenoids of the drimane class from a sponge of the genus Dysidea

Ten sesquiterpenoids, including seven new ones, have been isolated from an undescribed sponge of the genus Dysidea. Compounds 1-8 are sesquiterpenoids of the drimane class, while 9 and 10 are 12-norsesquiterpenoids of the same structural class. The structures of novel compounds have been determined by combined spectroscopic methods. These compounds exhibited moderate antimicrobial and enzyme inhibitory (Na+/K(+)-ATPase and PLA2) activities.

Monitoring of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in boars

A major concern exists on transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) via semen and effect of vaccination on PRRSV shedding in semen. Recent reports suggest that the virus can be transmitted by semen from boars infected experimentally or from natural sources. Seminal shedding, viremia, and changes in semen quality in boars with or without vaccination were examined. Nine boars were divided into three groups (three boars/group). Group I boars were vaccinated with 2 ml of RespPRRS vaccine (NOBL Laboratory) intramusculary and groups II and III were non-vaccinated. At 28 post-vaccination study days, group I and group II boars were challenged with virulent PRRSV VR-2332 at 2 ml of 10(4.0) TCID50 per boar intranasally. Group III served as non-vaccinated and non-challenged control. Semen and serum samples were collected from -9 pre-vaccination study days to 85 post-challenge study days and tested for the presence of PRRSV by virus isolation and reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR). Prior to detection of PRRSV RNA from samples, conditions for RT-nPCR were optimized. Two primer sets, an external and an internal, were selected for RT-nPCR. The first round of PCR using an external primer set could detect 10 TCID50 of PRRSV/reaction. However, nested PCR could detect as little as 0.01 TCID50 of PRRSV/reaction. PRRS vaccine virus was not isolated from vaccinated pigs, but the vaccine virus RNA was detected from three boars, at day 6 to 15, 9 to 12, and 15 to 21 post-vaccination by RT-nPCR. Following challenge, two of non-vaccinated/challenged boars shed virus into semen up to 50 and 57 days post-challenge, respectively. The group I vaccinated boars did not shed virus into semen after challenge. The non-vaccinated/challenged group featured sperm abnormalities in the form of significantly increased incidence of proximal droplets and abnormal tails at 36-50 days post-challenge. The latter defect was observed to increase similarly in vaccinated/challenged boars as well.

Isolation of guaianoid pigments from the gorgonian Calicogorgia granulosa

Three pigments of the guaiazulene class have been isolated from the gorgonian Calicogorgia granulosa. Structures of these compounds have been determined as guaiazulene, 2,2'- diguaiazulenylmethane, and a new compound, 2,2'-biguaiazulenyl, by combined chemical and spectroscopic methods. 2,2'-Biguaiazulenyl exhibited moderate antimicrobial activity.

p62, a phosphotyrosine-independent ligand of the SH2 domain of p56lck, belongs to a new class of ubiquitin-binding proteins

p62 is a novel cellular protein which was initially identified as a phosphotyrosine-independent ligand of the SH2 domain of p56(lck). In the yeast two-hybrid system, p62 specifically interacted with ubiquitin in vivo. Furthermore, p62 bound to ubiquitin-conjugated Sepharose beads in vitro and was efficiently competed by soluble ubiquitin. The interaction was independent of ATP hydrolysis, and its dissociation did not require a reducing agent. Thus, p62 binds to ubiquitin noncovalently. Further analysis showed that the C-terminal 80 amino acids of p62 were indispensable for its interaction with ubiquitin. However, p62 has homology neither with ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases nor with the S5a subunit of the 26 S proteasome complex, the only proteins known to bind to ubiquitin noncovalently. These results suggest that p62 belongs to a new class of ubiquitin-binding proteins and that p62 affects signal transduction at least partly through ubiquitination-mediated protein degradation.

Quantitative comparison of multiple myeloma tumor contamination in bone marrow harvest and leukapheresis autografts

Autologous transplantation is increasingly being used to treat patients with multiple myeloma (MM). Recently, peripheral blood progenitor cell (PBPC) harvest have been preferred over autologous bone marrow (BM) harvests due to reduced engraftment time, ease of attainment, and presumptive reduction of occult tumor involvement. To resolve this latter assumption quantitatively, we have used the unique immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain variable region sequence of the patient's myeloma cell as a marker of clonality. Samples from PBPC collections and 'back-up' BM harvests were obtained from 13 patients with MM and analyzed for tumor contamination using patient-specific oligonucleotide primers and the polymerase chain reaction. As expected, the percentage of tumor cells contaminating the BM harvest (median, 0.74%) was higher than in the PBPC specimens (median, 0.0024%). Because of the increased total number of cells required for PBPC transplantation, the increase in total number of contaminating cells in the BM vs PBPC autografts was less pronounced, (BM:PBPC tumor contamination ratios ranging from 0.9 to > 4500; median, 14). This confirms that in most but not all cases unmanipulated PBPC products are preferable over BM harvests as a method of reducing myeloma autograft tumor contamination.

Molecular cloning of a phosphotyrosine-independent ligand of the p56lck SH2 domain

A novel human cDNA encoding a cytosolic 62-kDa protein (p62) that binds to the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of p56lck in a phosphotyrosine-independent manner has been cloned. The cDNA is composed of 2074 nucleotides with an open reading frame encoding 440 amino acids. Northern analysis suggests that p62 is expressed ubiquitously in all tissues examined. p62 is not homologous to any known protein in the data base. However, it contains a cysteine-rich region resembling a zinc finger motif, a potential G-protein-binding region, a PEST motif, and several potential phosphorylation sites. Using T7-epitope tagged p62 expression in HeLa cells, the expressed protein was shown to bind to the lck SH2 domain. Deletion of the N-terminal 50 amino acids abolished binding, but mutagenesis of the single tyrosine residue in this region had no effect on binding. Thus, the cloned cDNA indeed encodes the p62 protein, which is a phosphotyrosine-independent ligand for the lck SH2 domain. Its binding mechanism is unique with respect to binding modes of other known ligands for SH2 domains.

[Blood pressure and renin in long-term hemodialysis patients]

Blood pressure (BP), plasma active renin concentration (ARC), plasma renin activity (PRA), aldosterone (Aldo), atrial natriuretic peptide (HANP), plasma sodium (Na), plasma potassium (K), total protein (TP), hematocrit (Ht) and body weight (BW) have been measured in 101 patients, including 9 diabetic patients, undergoing hemodialysis for 5 through 278 months. BP, ARC, PRA and HANP correlated inversely with the duration of dialysis. Among 13 patients undergoing hemodialysis for more than 20 years, only one patient received antihypertensive drugs. This finding suggested that relative low ability of renin secretion and a slightly low concentration of HANP causes low blood pressure in long-term dialysis patients. ARC was significantly correlated with PRA, Aldo, Na, TP-A (TP concentration after hemodialysis), Ht(delta)% (difference between before and after hemodialysis) and BW(delta)%. These investigations suggest that the removal of large quantities of water and salt in each dialysis session may cause excessive secretion of renin. Though no relation was demonstrated between ARC and blood pressure in 101 patients, ARC was correlated significantly with blood pressure in 37 non-DM patients undergoing hemodialysis for less than 10 years and was inversely correlated in 55 non-DM patients undergoing hemodialysis for more than 10 years. Therefore, further analysis of other factors that maintain blood pressure, especially in long-term dialysis patients is required. Multiple regression analysis showed that major factors regulating the levels of blood pressure were duration of dialysis, Ht(delta)% and BW(delta)%. During dialysis, we observed significant correlation between ARC(delta)% and Ht(delta)%, but we did not find any correlation between the change in blood pressure and ARC. Furthermore, [correction of Forthermore] we found that caution should be paid to body water control especially in diabetic patients, because of their remarkable fall of BP during dialysis.

GERI-BP002-A, novel inhibitor of acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase produced by Aspergillus fumigatus F93

A new inhibitor of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT), designated GERI-BP002-A, was isolated from the culture broth of Aspergillus fumigatus F93 by acetone extraction, EtOAc extraction, SiO2 column chromatography and reverse phase HPLC. Spectroscopic analyses of the compound identified bis (2-hydroxy-3-tert-butyl-5-methylphenyl) methane as the structure and its molecular weight and formula to be 340 and C23H32O2, respectively. GERI-BP002-A inhibited ACAT activity by 50% at the concentration of 50 microM in an enzyme assay system using rat liver microsomes.

Phosphotyrosine-independent binding of a 62-kDa protein to the src homology 2 (SH2) domain of p56lck and its regulation by phosphorylation of Ser-59 in the lck unique N-terminal region

A previously undescribed 62-kDa protein (p62) that does not contain phosphotyrosine but, nevertheless, binds specifically to the isolated src homology 2 (SH2) domain of p56lck has been identified. The additional presence of the unique N-terminal region of p56lck prevents p62 binding to the SH2 domain. However, phosphorylation at Ser-59 (or alternatively, its mutation to Glu) reverses the inhibition and allows interaction of the p56lck SH2 domain with p62. Moreover, p62 is associated with a serine/threonine kinase activity and also binds to ras GTPase-activating protein, a negative regulator of the ras signaling pathway. Thus, phosphotyrosine-independent binding of p62 to the p56lck SH2 domain appears to provide an alternative pathway for p56lck signaling that is regulated by Ser-59 phosphorylation.

New secosteroids from an undescribed gorgonian of the genus Muricella

Three new 9,10-secosteroids, calicoferols C-E [2-4] have been isolated from an undescribed gorgonian of the genus Muricella, and their structures determined by a combination of spectroscopic methods. Calicoferol D [3] exhibited potent antiviral activity and brine-shrimp lethality.

Modification of Ser59 in the unique N-terminal region of tyrosine kinase p56lck regulates specificity of its Src homology 2 domain

During T-cell activation, Ser59 in the unique N-terminal region of p56lck is phosphorylated. Mutation of Ser59 to Glu59 mimics Ser59 phosphorylation, and upon CD4 crosslinking, this mutant p56lck induces tyrosine phosphorylation of intracellular proteins distinct from those induced by wild-type p56lck. Mutant and wild-type p56lck have similar affinities for CD4 and similar kinase activities. In glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins, the p56lck Src homology 2 (SH2) domain with the SH3 domain and the unique N-terminal region (including Ser59) has a different binding specificity for phosphotyrosyl proteins than the SH2 domain alone. Either deletion of the unique N-terminal region or mutation of Ser59 to Glu59 in the fusion protein reverts the phosphotyrosyl protein binding specificity back to that of the SH2 domain alone. These results suggest that phosphorylation of Ser59 regulates the function of p56lck by controlling binding specificity of its SH2 domain.

Ca2+ is an obligatory intermediate in the excitation cascade of limulus photoreceptors

We have investigated the role of Ca2+ in the excitation of Limulus photoreceptors by intracellular injection of the Ca2+ buffer, 5,5'-dibromo-BAPTA. Buffer with free Ca2+ of 0.5 or 5 microM slowed the rising edge of the light response over 100-fold and greatly reduced both the transient and plateau phases of the light response, as expected if Ca2+ elevation is necessary for all phases of excitation. Injection of buffers with free Ca2+ of 5 or 45 microM, levels normally reached during light, evoked sustained inward current as expected if Ca2+ is sufficient for excitation. The transduction cascade appears due to a single pathway that sequentially involves 1,4,5-trisphosphate inositol, Ca2+, and cyclic GMP.

Interactions of CD4 with MHC class II molecules, T cell receptors and p56lck

CD4 and CD8 are members of the immunoglobulin supergene family of proteins, and function as co-receptors with the T cell receptor (TCR) in binding MHC class II or class I molecules, respectively. Within this multimeric complex, CD4 interacts with three distinct ligands. CD4 interacts through its D1 and D2 domains with MHC class II proteins, through its D3 and D4 domains with T cell receptors, and through its cytoplasmic tail with p56lck, a src-related, protein tyrosine kinase. Each of these interactions is important in the function of CD4 and will be discussed in turn.

Phosphorylation of Ser-42 and Ser-59 in the N-terminal region of the tyrosine kinase p56lck

Ser-42 and Ser-59 in the N-terminal region have been identified as the major phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation sites of p56lck. Phosphorylation of Ser-59 results in a gel shift from 56 kDa to 61 kDa. Simultaneous phosphorylation of Ser-42 and Ser-59 results in a further gel shift to 63 kDa. In vitro kinase assays show that Ser-59 can be uniquely phosphorylated by mitogen-activated protein kinase and that Ser-42 can be phosphorylated by either protein kinase A or protein kinase C.

Translocation of TCR alpha chains into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and their degradation

After synthesis, the alpha chain of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR alpha) can form a complex with other TCR chains and move to the cell surface, or TCR alpha can undergo degradation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) if it remains unassembled. The mechanism of translocation and degradation in the ER is unclear. It was found that the putative transmembrane region of TCR alpha (alpha tm) was incompetent on its own to act as a transmembrane region. Molecules that contained alpha tm were translocated into the ER lumen and then underwent either rapid degradation or secretion, depending on the sequence of the cytoplasmic domain. A specific signal for ER degradation within alpha tm does not appear to be present.

Disruption of the CD4-p56lck complex is required for rapid internalization of CD4

CD4 is a cell surface glycoprotein expressed by a subset of T lymphocytes and functions to enhance T-cell activation. CD4 is noncovalently associated via the cytoplasmic domain with the protein-tyrosine kinase p56lck, a member of the src protein-tyrosine kinase family. Upon activation of protein kinase C by phorbol ester, CD4 is phosphorylated on cytoplasmic serine residues and internalized from the cell surface, and disruption of the CD4-p56lck complex occurs. The exact relationship between these events is likely to be functionally significant, as cytoplasmic-domain serine phosphorylation and internalization have been shown to regulate the function of receptors that possess intrinsic protein-tyrosine kinase activity. Here we demonstrate that p56lck slows the rate of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced internalization of CD4 in a manner that depends on a physical association between p56lck and CD4. This decreased rate is due at least in part to a requirement for disruption of the CD4-p56lck complex prior to internalization of CD4. Furthermore, disruption of the CD4-p56lck complex appears to depend on the integrity of the cytoplasmic-domain serine at position 408, probably due to a requirement for phosphorylation.

Structure of asperketal B

3,7,11-Trimethyl-13-oxabicyclo[8.3.0]trideca-2,6-diene-12-spiro-2' -(5',5'-dimethyltetrahydrofuran), asperketal B, C20H30O2, M(r) = 302.46, orthorhombic, P2(1)2(1)2(1), a = 10.064(1), b = 22.214(2), c = 8.330 (1) A, V = 1862.3 A3, Z = 4, Dx = 1.08 g cm-3, Cu K alpha, lambda = 1.54178 A, mu = 4.55 cm-1, F(000) = 664, T = 294 (1) K, R = 0.031, wR = 0.027 for 953 data. The backbone of the molecule is composed of a cyclodecadiene ring which is cis fused to a bicyclic ketal system. The relative configurations at C(1), C(10), C(11) and C(12) are 1S*, 10R*, 11R* and 12R*.

p56lck association with CD4 is required for the interaction between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex and for optimal antigen stimulation

By fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we have previously demonstrated that upon anti-CD3 mAb-mediated activation of a murine T cell hybridoma expressing human CD4, CD4 moves into close association with the TCR/CD3 complex. It was shown that this association between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex was dependent upon the presence of an intact CD4 cytoplasmic domain. We have now expressed, in a murine T cell hybridoma, mutated forms of CD4 containing cysteine to serine point mutations at positions 420, 422, or 430. The mutations at positions 420 and 422, but not 430, abolish association with p56lck. By using fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we demonstrate that mutations of CD4 which fail to interact with p56lck are unable to associate with the TCR/CD3 complex under conditions in which wild-type CD4 and the 430 mutant CD4 do associate with the TCR/CD3 complex. In addition, these mutants have a diminished response to CD4-dependent stimuli. We conclude that the association between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex during T cell activation plays an important role in CD4-dependent responsiveness and this association requires the interaction of CD4 with p56lck. These results also suggest that a substrate for p56lck may be expressed in the TCR/CD3 complex.

p56lck association with CD4 is required for the interaction between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex and for optimal antigen stimulation

By fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we have previously demonstrated that upon anti-CD3 mAb-mediated activation of a murine T cell hybridoma expressing human CD4, CD4 moves into close association with the TCR/CD3 complex. It was shown that this association between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex was dependent upon the presence of an intact CD4 cytoplasmic domain. We have now expressed, in a murine T cell hybridoma, mutated forms of CD4 containing cysteine to serine point mutations at positions 420, 422, or 430. The mutations at positions 420 and 422, but not 430, abolish association with p56lck. By using fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we demonstrate that mutations of CD4 which fail to interact with p56lck are unable to associate with the TCR/CD3 complex under conditions in which wild-type CD4 and the 430 mutant CD4 do associate with the TCR/CD3 complex. In addition, these mutants have a diminished response to CD4-dependent stimuli. We conclude that the association between CD4 and the TCR/CD3 complex during T cell activation plays an important role in CD4-dependent responsiveness and this association requires the interaction of CD4 with p56lck. These results also suggest that a substrate for p56lck may be expressed in the TCR/CD3 complex.

Adjunctive radiation therapy for rectal carcinoma

From 1977 through 1985, 113 patients received radiation therapy in conjunction with definitive surgery for adenocarcinoma of the rectum. Posttreatment consisted of a minimum follow-up of 4 years. Radiation was given as postoperative (eight patients), short-course preoperative (2,000 cGy/5 fx, 21 patients), or as full-course preoperative treatment (4,500-5,000 cGy, 84 patients). Three patients received chemotherapy as part of the adjuvant treatment. The local control for the total group was 90% (local failures, 11 of 113), and the rate of recurrence at any site (distant or local) was 30% (34 of 113). Local failure was not significantly influenced by pretreatment clinical findings, tumor grade, or surgical stage. Because of distant failures, overall recurrence was significantly associated with surgical stage--0% (0 of 15) for Astler-Coller A, 23% (7 of 30) for B1, 25% (7 of 28) for B2, and 50% (20 of 40) for B3 or C lesions (p less than 0.01). Locally advanced pretreatment clinical findings were not independent of surgical stage as predictors of outcome. In particular, 14 of the tumors that received full course preoperative radiation were initially either nearly obstructing, circumferential, or deeply fixed. However, by the time of surgery, they were A or B1 lesions (probably down-staged lesions). Only one of 14 (7%) ultimately failed with a local and distant recurrence. There were four cases (3.5%) of small bowel obstruction requiring surgical management. Overall, there were 12 complications (11%) requiring either surgical or major medical management. The complication rate was not associated with radiotherapeutic factors. A strong association was noted between complications and the surgeon. Of 66 patients who had surgery with two colorectal specialists, four (6%) had serious complications. Of the remaining 47 patients who had general surgeons, eight (17%) experienced serious complications.

Acid secretion and the H,K ATPase of stomach

The regulation of acid secretion was clarified by the development of H2-receptor antagonists in the 1970s. It appears that gastrin and acetylcholine exert their effects on acid secretion mainly by stimulation of histamine release from the enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell of the fundic gastric mucosa. The isolated ECL cell of rat gastric mucosa responds to gastrin/cholecystokinin (CCK), acetylcholine, and epinephrine with histamine release and to somatostatin and R-alpha-methyl histamine by inhibition of histamine release. Histamine and acetylcholine stimulate the parietal cell by elevation of cAMP or [Ca]i by activation of H2 or M3 receptors, respectively. These independent pathways converge to activate the gastric acid pump, the H+,K+ ATPase. Activation is a function of the association of the ATPase with a potassium chloride transport pathway that occurs in the membrane of the secretory canaliculus of the parietal cell. Hence the secretory canaliculus is the site of acid secretion, the acid being pumped into the lumen of the canaliculus. The pump is composed of two subunits, a large catalytic and a smaller glycosylated protein. This final step of acid secretion has become the target of drugs also designed to inhibit acid secretion. The target domain of the benzimidazole class of acid pump inhibitors is the extracytoplasmic domain of the pump that is secreting acid, and the target amino acids are the cysteines present in this domain. The secondary structure of the pump can be analyzed by determining trypsin-sensitive bonds in intact, cytoplasmic-side-out vesicles of the ATPase, and it has been shown that the alpha subunit has at least eight membrane-spanning segments. Omeprazole, the first acid pump inhibitor, forms a disulfide bond with cysteines in the extracytoplasmic loop between the fifth and sixth membrane-spanning segment and to a cysteine in the extracytoplasmic loop between the seventh and eight segments, preventing phosphorylation of the pump by ATP. As a result of the effective and long-lasting inhibition of acid secretion by the acid pump inhibitor, superior clinical results have been found in all forms of acid-related disease.

Delineation of a previously unrecognized cis-acting element required for HLA class II gene expression

The cis-acting DNA sequences that control expression of the HLA-DPA and HLA-DQB promoters have been investigated in detail. A set of recombinant plasmids containing 5' promoter deletions as well as site-directed mutants of the DPA and DQB genes were fused to a reporter gene and transfected into human B and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma)-inducible cells. A previously unrecognized cis element, which is essential both for transcription induced by IFN-gamma in several cell types and for constitutive class II expression in B cells, in addition to the well known X and Y boxes, has been defined. This sequence, which spans nucleotides -107 to -98 and -146 to -137 of the DPA and DQB promoters, respectively, has been called the J element. Some evidence for function of a fourth element, the S element, is also presented.

Phosphorylation-dependent down-modulation of CD4 requires a specific structure within the cytoplasmic domain of CD4

Several structural features of the cytoplasmic domain of CD4 including phosphorylation of Ser-408 have been shown to be important in its endocytosis (Shin, J., Doyle, C., Yang, Z., Kappes, D., and Strominger, J.L. (1990) EMBO J. 9, 425-434). A series of cytoplasmic domain truncations have now indicated that the membrane proximal region of the cytoplasmic domain from Arg-396 to Lys-417 is sufficient for phorbol ester-induced internalization; this segment is predicted to be an alpha-helix. The severe impairment of endocytosis resulting from the mutation Ser-408 to Ala-408 is largely restored by a compensating mutation Ala-404 to Ser-404; phosphorylation of Ser-404 has been directly demonstrated. Furthermore, mutation of Met-407, Ile-410, Leu-413, or Leu-414 to a hydrophilic residue eliminated CD4 endocytosis as did domain truncation at Arg-412. Ser-408 was normally phosphorylated in all of these mutants, suggesting that other residues in this region, including the four hydrophobic amino acids, are also required for CD4 endocytosis. Immunofluorescence microscopy following staining of intact and permeabilized cells showed that all endocytosis defective mutants indeed remained on the cell surface even after phorbol ester treatment, while wild type CD4 was endocytosed and degraded in lysosomes. These data indicate that endocytosis requiring residues 397-417 and binding of lymphocyte tyrosine kinase at residues 417-429 are functions of independent segments of the cytoplasmic region and lead to a hypothesis regarding some features of the endocytic process.

Structural features of the cytoplasmic region of CD4 required for internalization

CD4, the T cell surface antigen, is phosphorylated and internalized when T cells are activated or treated with a phorbol ester, PMA. The actual phosphorylation sites have been identified and the role of phosphorylation of each on CD4 internalization investigated. Seven different mutants, in each of which one, two or all three of the serine residues of the cytoplasmic region was modified to alanine(s) (CD4.SA mutants) and one mutant in which the whole amino acid sequence from Gln421 to the C-terminal Ile433 was changed (CD4.EP mutant) were constructed and used to determine the effect of phosphorylation on CD4 internalization. Ser408 was the most efficiently phosphorylated by PMA treatment, Ser415 next and Ser431 to a minor extent. The effect of mutation on internalization was well matched with the effect on extent of phosphorylation, i.e. Ser408 was the residue most important for internalization. However, complete inhibition of CD4 internalization was achieved only by mutating all three serine residues. Interestingly, the mutant CD4.EP in which Ser408 was present and phosphorylated was not measurably internalized, suggesting that phosphorylation of Ser408 induces CD4 internalization only when other structural features of the cytoplasmic domain remain intact. In addition, the data suggest the existence of an additional minor pathway for CD4 internalization which is phosphorylation independent.

SC-39026, a serine elastase inhibitor, prevents muscularization of peripheral arteries, suggesting a mechanism of monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension in rats

In rats injected with the toxin monocrotaline, altered synthesis and distribution of pulmonary artery elastin suggest that increased elastase activity may be important in the development of vascular changes and progressive pulmonary hypertension. To test this hypothesis, male Sprague-Dawley rats (250-300 g) were given 40 mg/kg of the elastase inhibitor SC-39026 in a carboxymethylcellulose vehicle or vehicle only by gavage, 12 hours before and twice daily for 8 days after a single subcutaneous injection of either monocrotaline (60 mg/kg) or saline. Thirteen days after injection, indwelling cardiovascular catheters were inserted under pentobarbital anesthesia, and at 15 days after injection, pulmonary and systemic hemodynamic measurements were recorded with the animals awake. At post-mortem examination, the lungs were perfused and morphometric techniques applied for light and electron microscopic evaluation. Saline-injected rats given either SC-39026 or vehicle were similar in all features assessed. In contrast, monocrotaline-injected rats given SC-39026 had significantly lower mean pulmonary artery pressure than those given vehicle (21.0 +/- 1.6 vs. 27.5 +/- 0.8 mm Hg, p less than 0.05), and this correlated with a significant reduction in the number of abnormally muscularized arteries at alveolar wall level (r2 = 0.89, p less than 0.001). SC-39026 did not significantly reduce monocrotaline-induced medial hypertrophy of muscular arteries, endothelial injury, and associated subendothelial edema; nor was there a significant increase in the proportion of the medial elastin, although a trend was apparent. Additional groups of monocrotaline injected rats were followed 3 weeks after injection, but both SC-39026 and vehicle-treated rats were similar at this point. Our data suggest that increased serine elastase activity associated with endothelial injury may mediate early abnormal pulmonary vascular smooth muscle differentiation resulting in muscularization of normally nonmuscular peripheral arteries and pulmonary hypertension induced in rats by injection of the toxin monocrotaline. Lack of persistence of this protective effect suggests that there may be continued elastase activity in this model. Failure to inhibit medial hypertrophy with SC-39026 suggests that a different mechanism or a different elastase may be involved in this structural change.

Intraparenchymal brain metastases: MR imaging versus contrast-enhanced CT

Prospective and retrospective studies of 75 patients were performed to assess the sensitivities of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and computed tomography (CT) in the evaluation of suspected intraparenchymal brain metastases. The findings on MR images were equivalent to those on CT scans in 49 of the 75 patients; the remaining findings were discordant in 26 patients, and neither MR imaging nor CT was consistently superior. MR imaging demonstrated more metastases in nine of these 26 patients. However, contrast material-enhanced CT scans were superior in lesion depiction in eight of the 26 patients. Large enhanced lesions that were nearly isointense on MR images were seen well on CT scans. In several cases in which results were discordant, gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)-enhanced MR images were obtained, and this agent behaved similarly to iodinated contrast agents. If indicated clinically, such as before surgery for a single metastasis, the authors perform both MR imaging and contrast-enhanced CT. Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging may prove to be the method of choice for depiction of intraparenchymal metastases.

A single amino acid substitution in an ectopic alpha subunit of a human carcinoma choriogonadotropin

Human choriogonadotropin [hCG] has two dissimilar noncovalently associated subunits, designated alpha and beta. An ectopically secreted hCG alpha subunit that fails to associate with the beta subunit and displays an anomalously high molecular weight on molecular sieve chromatography but not on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis has been sequenced. A single substitution of Glu56 by Ala56 has been found in the altered subunit. No evidence for conformational differences between normal and ectopic alpha could be found using circular dichroism or intrinsic fluorescence as measures of secondary and tertiary structure, respectively. Hydrophobicity profiles as determined by the method of Kyte and Doolittle (Kyte, J., and Doolittle, R. F. (1982) J. Mol. Biol. 157, 105-132) predicted, however, that the hydrophilic segment, Thr54-Ser55-Glu56-Ser57-Thr58, becomes an extension of the preceding hydrophobic segment when Glu56 is substituted with Ala. This solitary hemoglobin S-like mutation may lead to an altered tertiary structure, self dimerization, or an alteration in glycosylation that could be responsible for the ectopic alpha subunit's failure to associate with the beta subunit.

Disulfides of the lutropin receptor

Affinity cross-linking of the lutropin receptor with 125I-human choriogonadotropin (hCG) on porcine granulosa cells produced four distinct homone-receptor complexes under reducing conditions. They contain 18-, 24-, 28-, and 34-kDa components (Ji, I., Bock, J. H., and Ji, T. H. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 12815-12821). Photoaffinity labeling and cross-linking produced 136-, 102-, and 74-kDa hCG-receptor complexes under reducing conditions and the 136-kDa complex under nonreducing conditions. In addition, the unreduced 102-kDa complex was seen in photoaffinity labeling but not in cross-linking. When the unreduced 136-kDa complex was reduced, the 102- and 74-kDa complexes were generated, indicating release of the 34- and the 28-kDa components in two steps. When the unreduced 102-kDa complex was reduced, the 74-kDa complex was produced, indicating the release of a 28-kDa component. The 74-kDa complex could not be reduced but was cleaved by alkaline treatment to produce the hCG alpha beta dimer. The results indicate that the 24-kDa component is released from the 74-kDa complex, since the apparent mass of the hCG alpha beta dimer on gels is 50 kDa. The 24-kDa component appears to be the initial site for photoaffinity labeling or cross-linking and to be disulfide linked to the 28-kDa component which is in turn disulfide linked to the 34-kDa component. These intercomponent disulfides exist in some receptors but not all. Formation of the disulfide-linked 136-kDa band required the presence of a sulfhydryl-blocking agent, N-ethylmaleimide. In particular, the 34-kDa component was vulnerable to reduction. There was no significant evidence of disulfides between the hormone and any of the receptor components.

Structural homologies in the lutropin/human choriogonadotropin receptor and the follitropin receptor on porcine granulosa cells

In order to examine the structure of the human choriogonadotropin (hCG) receptor and the follitropin (FSH) receptor on porcine granulosa cells, the hormone receptors were photoaffinity-labeled or affinity-cross-linked. The resulting hormone-receptor complexes were analyzed by alkaline cleavage of cross-links, reduction of disulfides, and peptide maps. The results revealed striking similarities in the structure of the hormone receptors. Both appear to be oligomeric; the hCG receptor has at least four components of 18, 24, 28, and 34 kDa, whereas the FSH receptor shows three distinct components of 18, 22, and 34 kDa. The 24- and the 22-kDa components are the sites for the primary photoaffinity labeling or affinity cross-linking by hCG and FSH, respectively. These components were linked by intercomponent disulfides. Reduction of cross-linked complexes revealed that in the hCG receptor the 24-, the 28-, and the 34-kDa components were disulfide-linked sequentially in a linear form as were the 22-, the 18-, and the 34-kDa components in the FSH receptor. The peptide maps of cross-linked hCG-receptor and FSH-receptor complexes, however, were distinct, indicating that the hCG receptor and the FSH receptor were not identical.

Radioiodination of a photoactivatable heterobifunctional reagent

The N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of 4-azidosalicylic acid, a photoactivable heterobifunctional reagent, can be radioiodinated. The low efficiency (3%) of the radioiodination by a previously published method (I. Ji and T. H. Ji, 1982, Anal. Biochem. 121, 286-289) has been increased to 63% by substituting the solvent, acetone, with others such as aqueous acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, or dimethyl sulfoxide. The resulting 125I reagent was used for derivatizing human choriogonadotropin. The radioactive hormone derivative was crosslinked to the alpha beta dimer upon photolysis.

Photoaffinity labeling of the follitropin receptor

A photoactivatable derivative of human follitropin was used to identify the follitropin receptor on porcine granulosa cells. The hormone was condensed with a heterobifunctional reagent, the N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of 4-azidobenzoylglycine, and radioiodinated. The 125I-labeled hormone (125I-hormone) derivative associated with the same number of receptors as 125I-hormone itself, but with a slightly lower Ka, 1.12 X 10(10) M-1 compared with 1.4 X 10(10) M-1 for the 125I-hormone. The binding could be blocked with untreated hormone. Its alpha and beta subunits could be cross-linked to produce alpha beta dimer by photolysis. When the 125I-hormone derivative bound to the cells was photolyzed for crosslinking and the products resolved by electrophoresis on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels under reducing conditions, two new bands (106 and 61 kDa) of lower electrophoretic mobility appeared in addition to the alpha, beta, and alpha beta bands. Formation of these crosslinked complexes required photolysis, and the 125I-hormone derivative specifically bound to cells bearing the receptor. Binding could be blocked by excess untreated follitropin but not with human choriogonadotropin and thyrotropin. Under nonreducing conditions, one major band (104 kDa) of cross-linked complexes appeared. Upon reduction with dithiothreitol and second-dimensional electrophoresis, the 104-kDa band produced two smaller complexes of 75 and 61 kDa, indicating the loss of two components and the existence of intercomponent disulfides. Successful production of the 104-kDa complex requires blocking of free sulfhydryl groups with N-ethylmaleimide. It is, however, independent of various protease inhibitors or the temperature and the time period of hormone incubation with cells or the plasma membrane fraction. The mass estimates and the interaction with the hormone of the photoaffinity-labeled components are discussed.

Intersubunit disulfides of the follitropin receptor

The electrophoretic mobility of radioiodinated follitropin (FSH) alpha and beta subunits as well as the alpha beta dimer changed markedly depending on the concentration of reducing agents such as dithiothreitol. The changes were more dramatic in the beta subunit than in the alpha subunit. 125I-FSH, complexed to the receptor on porcine granulosa cells or in Triton X-100 extracts, was cross-linked with a cleavable (nondisulfide) homobifunctional reagent, solubilized in sodium dodecyl sulfate without reducing agents, and electrophoresed. The cross-linked sample revealed three bands of high molecular mass, in addition to the hormone subunit and dimer bands. The band of lightest mass, 110 kDa, was the major band and the other two of 76 and 62 kDa were barely noticeable. Upon reduction with dithiothreitol, the 110-kDa band decreased while the 76- and 62-kDa bands increased, indicating the existence of disulfides between components of the 110-kDa complex. Formation of the disulfide-linked complexes requires 125I-FSH, specifically bound to the hormone receptor and cross-linking, and can be prevented with an excess of native FSH but not human choriogonadotropin. Complex formation was independent of blocking free sulfhydryl groups with N-ethylmaleimide. When the cross-linked complexes were reduced in the gel matrix and analyzed on fresh gels, the 76- and 62-kDa complexes were generated from the 110-kDa band, indicating the loss of two components. The lost components were estimated to be at 14 and 34 kDa. The rate of formation and cleavage of the cross-linked complexes indicated a sequential and incremental addition of 22-, 14-, and 34-kDa components to the FSH alpha beta dimer. The results of reduction of the cross-linked complexes demonstrate the existence of disulfide linkage between the three components.

Composition of cross-linked 125I-follitropin-receptor complexes

Both of the alpha and beta subunits of intact human follitropin (FSH) were radioiodinated with 125I-sodium iodide and chloramine-T and could be resolved on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels. Radioiodinated FSH was affinity-cross-linked with a cleavable (nondisulfide) homobifunctional reagent to its membrane receptor on the porcine granulosa cell surface as well as to a Triton X-100-solubilized form of the receptor. Cross-linked samples revealed three additional bands of slower electrophoretic mobility, corresponding to 65, 83, and 117 kDa, in addition to the hormone bands. The hormone alpha beta dimer band corresponded to 43 kDa. Formation of the three bands requires the 125I-hormone to bind specifically to the receptor with subsequent cross-linking. Binding was prevented by an excess of the native hormone but not by other hormones. A monofunctional analog of the cross-linking reagent failed to produce the three bands. Reagent concentration-dependent cross-linking revealed that their formation was sequential; smaller complexes formed first and then larger ones. When gels of cross-linked complexes were treated to cleave covalent cross-links and then electrophoresed in a second dimension, 18-, 22-, and 34-kDa components were released, in addition to the alpha and beta subunits of the hormone.