Human postsynaptic density-95 (PSD95): location of the gene (DLG4) and possible function in nonneural as well as in neural tissues

We have determined the cDNA sequence, expression pattern, and chromosomal location of the human gene DLG4, encoding the postsynaptic density-95 (PSD95) protein. hPSD95 is a 723-amino-acid protein that is 99% identical to its rodent counterparts. This is the fourth human protein identified as showing significant similarity to the Drosophila tumor suppressor Dlg. These proteins constitute the DLG subfamily of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase protein family. The expression of DLG4 in neural tissue is consistent with the pattern observed for its rat homolog. However, DLG4 is also expressed in a wide range of nonneural tissues, suggesting that the protein may have additional roles in humans. Using radiation-hybrid mapping panels, we mapped the DLG4 locus to 17p13.1, a region associated with several diseases, the phenotypes of which are consistent with loss of PSD95 function.

Mutations in subunit 6 of the F1F0-ATP synthase cause two entirely different diseases

A lowered efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation was recently found in a Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) proband carrying a mutation in the mtDNA gene for subunit 6 of the membrane-bound F0 segment of the F1F0-ATP synthase [9]. This phenotype was transferred to cytoplasmic hybrid cells together with the mutation, proving its functional significance. Increasing the respiratory rate in the mitochondria from this mutant raised the ATP/2e- ratio back to normal values. A different mutation in the same mtDNA gene has been found in patients with the NARP syndrome [10]. Although the ATP/2e- ratio is also decreased in this mutant, in this case an increase in the respiratory rate could not compensate for it. Whilst both mutations affect subunit 6 of the proton-translocating F0 segment, the LHON mutation induces a proton leak whereas the NARP mutation blocks proton translocation. Hence, the latter will have much more destructive metabolic consequences in agreement with the large clinical differences between the two diseases.

On the many faces of Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a maternally inherited disorder, associated with mutations in the mitochondrial DNA, which is notorious for its aspecific presentations. Two pedigrees are described with cases that are atypical for LHON with respect to sex, age of onset, interval between the eyes becoming affected, course of the disease, concomitant disorders, additional test results, final visual acuity, and/or results of mtDNA analysis. Moreover, the pedigrees themselves did not suggest maternal inheritance. We analysed the diagnostic and clinical genetic difficulties related to the atypical aspects of these pedigrees. We conclude that mtDNA analysis is justified in every case of optic nerve atrophy with no clear cause. Identification of one of the three LHON specifically associated mtDNA mutations is essential to confirm the diagnosis.

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: biochemical effect of 11778/ND4 and 3460/ND1 mutations and correlation with the mitochondrial genotype

To clarify the bioenergetic relevance of mtDNA mutations in Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), we investigated affected individuals and healthy carriers from six Italian LHON families harboring the 11778/ND4 and the 3460/ND1 mtDNA mutations. The enzymatic activities of mitochondrial complex I and its sensitivity to the potent inhibitors rotenone and rolliniastatin-2 were studied in mitochondrial particles from platelets, in correlation with mtDNA analysis of platelets and leukocytes. In platelets homoplasmic for mutant mtDNA, both 11778/ND4 and 3460/ND1 mutations induced resistance to rotenone and the 3460/ND1 mutation also provoked a marked decrease in the specific activity of complex I. Individuals heteroplasmic in platelets for either mutation showed normal biochemical features, indicating functional complementation of wild-type mtDNA. There was no correlation between the clinical status and mtDNA homo/heteroplasmy in platelets, but the biochemical features correlated with the mitochondrial genotype of platelets. In some cases, the degree of mtDNA heteroplasmy differed in platelets and leukocytes from the same individual with a prevalence of wild-type mtDNA in the platelets. These results imply that biochemical studies on mitochondrial diseases should always be integrated with mtDNA analysis of the same tissue investigated and also suggest that the mtDNA analysis on the leukocyte fraction, as usually performed in LHON, does not necessarily reflect the mutant genotype level of other tissues. The differential tissue heteroplasmy may be more relevant than previously thought in determining disease penetrance.

High incidence of visual recovery among four Japanese patients with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy with the 14484 mutation

The 14484 mutation in the ND6 gene of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a genetic mutation associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) in Caucasian patients who show a high incidence of visual recovery. We evaluated four Japanese patients with LHON associated with the 14484 mutation who were negative for eight proposed secondary mutations. There was no family history of optic atrophy in three of the four patients. All four patients were initially diagnosed as having optic neuritis, either anterior (Cases 1 and 3) or retrobulbar (Cases 2 and 4), based upon their fundus findings and clinical history. Molecular genetic testing of mtDNA confirmed the diagnosis of LHON in all four patients. The three patients who experienced recovery had their vision return to 20/50 or better in both eyes. The patient who did not was a heavy consumer of alcohol and tobacco. These findings indicate that Japanese patients with the 14484 mutation have a visual prognosis similar to that of Caucasians with this mutation.

Mutation analysis of the ND6 gene in patients with Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy

DNA sequence analysis of the gene encoding subunit 6 of the NADH-ubiquinone-oxidoreductase complex (ND6) in human mitochondria was performed in 25 independent patients who suffer from Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). In 10 cases the well-known LHON mutation at nucleotide position (np) 14484 was detected. Furthermore, silent substitutions at np14167 and np14527 and missense mutations at np14498, np14564, np14568, and np14582 were found in individual patients. The np14498 and np14568 mutations were found in patients who present a typical clinical picture and course of LHON but lack any of the canonical mtDNA mutations. The np14568 mutation, which replaces a moderately conserved glycine by a serine residue, was observed in a single male patient and subsequently excluded in 175 independent controls. The mutation at np14498, which replaces an evolutionarily highly conserved tyrosine with a cysteine, was found in a multigeneration family with four affected members, the eldest carrying a heteroplasmic mixture of mutated and wildtype mtDNA molecules. None of 170 analyzed control subjects carried this mutation. These findings provide evidence that several allelic ND6 gene mutations may be involved in Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy.

Simultaneous detection of multiple point mutations using fluorescence-coupled competitive primer extension

We report the development of a method for the simultaneous genotyping of several distinct nucleotide positions by means of fluorescence-coupled competitive primer extension. We demonstrate the application of this method for the simultaneous detection of three point mutations in the human mitochondrial genome, at nucleotide positions 3460, 11778 and 14484, which account for about 90% of cases with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. mtDNA fragments encompassing these nucleotide positions are initially amplified in a multiplex PCR assay. Genotyping is then carried out by a simultaneous primer extension assay using wild-type-specific (FAM-labeled) and mutant-specific (JOE-labeled) oligonucleotides. Primer extension products are separated on a 6% polyacrylamide/8 M urea gel on a fluorescence DNA sequencer. Patients' genotypes can be derived from the peak color of the different-sized extension products. As little as 10% mutant DNA can be detected in heteroplasmic mixtures of wild-type and mutant mtDNA, a degree that is sufficient for routine clinical practice.

Haplotype and phylogenetic analyses suggest that one European-specific mtDNA background plays a role in the expression of Leber hereditary optic neuropathy by increasing the penetrance of the primary mutations 11778 and 14484

mtDNAs from 37 Italian subjects affected by Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) (28 were 11778 positive, 7 were 3460 positive, and 2 were 14484 positive) and from 99 Italian controls were screened for most of the mutations that currently are associated with LHON. High-resolution restriction-endonuclease analysis also was performed on all subjects, in order to define the phylogenetic relationships between the mtDNA haplotypes and the LHON mutations observed in patients and in controls. This analysis shows that the putative secondary/intermediate LHON mutations 4216, 4917, 13708, 15257, and 15812 are ancient polymorphisms, are associated in specific combinations, and define two common Caucasoid-specific haplotype groupings (haplogroups J and T). On the contrary, the same analysis shows that the primary mutations 11778, 3460, and 14484 are recent and are due to multiple mutational events. However, phylogenetic analysis also reveals a different evolutionary pattern for the three primary mutations. The 3460 mutations are distributed randomly along the phylogenetic trees, without any preferential association with the nine haplogroups (H, I, J, K, T, U, V, W, and X) that characterize European populations, whereas the 11778 and 14484 mutations show a strong preferential association with haplogroup J. This finding suggests that one ancient combination of haplogroup J-specific mutations increases both the penetrance of the two primary mutations 11778 and 14484 and the risk of disease expression.

Mitochondrial DNA mutations and pathogenesis

Approximately there years ago, this journal published a review on the clinical and molecular analysis of mitochondrial encephalomyopathies, with emphasis on defects in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). At the time, approximately 30 point mutations associated with a variety of maternally-inherited (or rarely, sporadic) disorders had been described. Since that time, almost twenty new pathogenic mtDNA point mutations have been described, and the pace of discovery of such mutations shows no signs of abating. This accumulating body of data has begun to reveal some patterns that may be relevant to pathogenesis.

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy: how do mitochondrial DNA mutations cause degeneration of the optic nerve?

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is an inherited form of bilateral optic atrophy in which the primary etiological event is a mutation in the mitochondrial genome. The optic neuropathy involves a loss of central vision due to degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells and optic nerve axons that subserve central vision. The primary mitochondrial mutation is necessary--but not sufficient--for development of the optic neuropathy, and secondary genetic and/or epigenetic risk factors must also be present although they are poorly defined at the present time. There is broad agreement that mutations at nucleotides 3460, 11778, and 14484 are primary LHON mutations, but there may also be other rare primary mutations. It appears that the three primary LHON mutations are associated with respiratory chain dysfunction, but the derangements may be relatively subtle. There is also debate on whether there are mitochondrial mutations that have a secondary etiological or pathogenic role in LHON. The specific pattern of the optic neuropathy may arise from a "chokepoint" in the optic nerve in the region of the nerve head and lamina cribosa, and which may be more severe in those LHON family members who become visually affected. It is hypothesized that the respiratory chain dysfunction leads to axoplasmic stasis and swelling, thereby blocking ganglion cell function and causing loss of vision. In some LHON patients, this loss of function is reversible in a substantial number of ganglion cells, but in others, a cell death pathway (probably apoptotic) is activated with subsequent extensive degeneration of the retinal ganglion cell layer and optic nerve.

Refinement of the locus for autosomal dominant juvenile optic atrophy to a 2 cM region on 3q28

Juvenile optic atrophy (Kjer type; OPA1) is an autosomal dominant trait with an insidious onset in the first decade of life. The condition is characterized by a progressive loss of visual acuity that usually occurs with severe defects in color vision and visual fields. Genetic linkage analysis of a number of families has already assigned the OPA1 locus to the 3q28-qter region, within an estimated region of about 8 cM that is flanked by D3S1601 and D3S1265. Our study of a four-generation English family also supported tight linkage between the OPA1 locus and a group of DNA markers from the reported region. Of the 13 markers genotyped in this family, D3S2305 provided the maximum LOD score of 3.91 at theta = 0.00. Inspection of the haplotype transmission in this family identified critical recombinant individuals that refined the location of the OPA1 locus to an estimated region of about 2cM that is flanked by two DNA markers of D3S1601 and D3S2748. This refinement should facilitate the molecular cloning of the OPA1 gene and the determination of its defective product.

Evaluation of the human gene encoding recoverin in patients with retinitis pigmentosa or an allied disease

PURPOSE

To determine whether defects in the human recoverin gene cause retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or an allied disease such as Usher syndrome, Leber congenital amaurosis, or the Bardet-Biedl syndrome.

METHODS

Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis and direct genomic sequencing techniques were used to screen 596 unrelated patients, comprising 167 patients with dominant RP, 168 with recessive RP, and 261 with an allied disease.

RESULTS

Four sequence variants were discovered. The first was a missense change (Ala200Thr) found in one family with autosomal dominant RP and in one family with autosomal recessive RP; it did not segregate with disease. The second was a silent, single-base variation affecting codon Ser24 with a minor allele frequency of approximately 0.5%. The third was a silent, single-base variation affecting codon Va1122. The fourth was a single-nucleotide substitution in intron 2, 11 bp upstream of exon 3.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors found no evidence that mutations in the recoverin gene are a cause of RP or another of the hereditary retinal diseases studied. The human phenotype associated with mutations of the recoverin gene remains unknown.

Genotypes of aldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase polymorphisms in patients with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy

To define whether alcohol drinking provides a risk for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), the genotypes of low K(m) aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) and alcohol dehydrogenase type 2 (ADH2), major enzymes involving the alcohol metabolism, were examined in 29 unrelated Japanese patients with LHON associated with mitochondrial DNA 11778 mutation, 24 unrelated asymptomatic carriers with the mutation and 57 normal controls without the mutation. PCR-restriction detection revealed three genotypes of ALDH2 and ADH2. The allele frequencies of either enzyme in LHON patients, asymptomatic carriers, or both, did not differ from those in normal controls. There is no association between LHON and genotypes of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes. However, six of the LHON patients had frequent alcohol consumption, while none of the asymptomatic carriers claimed frequent drinking habit. Thus, we could not make a denial of drinking effects on optic nerve damage in LHON.

Mitochondrial disorders

There have been significant advances in our understanding of the contribution of mitochondria to basic cellular function such as energy supply, calcium homeostasis and, more recently, programmed cell death. Mitochondria now appear to play an important role in the final common pathway leading to apoptosis. Study of inborn errors of the respiratory chain is now focussed on understanding pathogenesis, in particular the role of the cell nucleus in determining the expression of mitochondrial DNA mutations. Respiratory chain deficiencies induced by exogenous or endogenous toxins are important in the aetiology and pathogenesis of certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. A potential role for inborn mitochondrial defects in these disorders has not yet been defined but is currently attracting interest.

Clustering of Caucasian Leber hereditary optic neuropathy patients containing the 11778 or 14484 mutations on an mtDNA lineage

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a type of blindness caused by mtDNA mutations. Three LHON mtDNA mutations at nucleotide positions 3460, 11778, and 14484 are specific for LHON and account for 90% of worldwide cases and are thus designated as "primary" LHON mutations. Fifteen other "secondary" LHON mtDNA mutations have been identified, but their pathogenicity is unclear. mtDNA haplotype and phylogenetic analysis of the primary LHON mutations in North American Caucasian patients and controls has shown that, unlike the 3460 and 11778 mutations, which are distributed throughout the European-derived (Caucasian) mtDNA phylogeny, patients containing the 14484 mutation tended to be associated with European mtDNA haplotype J. To investigate this apparent clustering, we performed chi2-based statistical analyses to compare the distribution of LHON patients on the Caucasian phylogenetic tree. Our results indicate that, unlike the 3460 and 11778 mutations, the 14484 mutation was not distributed on the phylogeny in proportion to the frequencies of the major Caucasian mtDNA haplogroups found in North America. The 14484 mutation was next shown to occur on the haplogroup J background more frequently that expected, consistent with the observation that approximately 75% of worldwide 14484-positive LHON patients occur in association with haplogroup J. The 11778 mutation also exhibited a moderate clustering on haplogroup J. These observations were supported by statistical analysis using all available mutation frequencies reported in the literature. This paper thus illustrates the potential importance of genetic background in certain mtDNA-based diseases, speculates on a pathogenic role for a subset of LHON secondary mutations and their interaction with primary mutations, and provides support for a polygenic model for LHON expression in some cases.

Clinical and genetic analysis of a family affected with dominant optic atrophy (OPA1)

OBJECTIVES

To refine the dominant optic atrophy locus, OPA1, on chromosome 3q and to characterize the phenotype of a 6-generation family pedigree affected with this disease.

METHODS

Fifty-six family members had a complete eye examination. Clinical records of an additional 3 patients were reviewed. Goldmann perimetry and a 21-chip subtest of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue test were performed on selected patients. Affected patients, unaffected siblings, and potentially informative spouses were genotyped with short tandem repeat polymorphisms located on chromosome 3. The genotypic data were subjected to linkage analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-four family members were found to be clinically affected. Most experienced vision loss (20/40 or poorer) in the first decade of life. Most (9 of the 16 eyes) progressed to 20/800 or poorer visual acuity by age 60 years, while 2 patients maintained visual acuities of 20/40 at that age. Affected patients had a 2- to 10-fold increase in the error score of a 21-chip subtest of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue test compared with age-matched unaffected family members. The optic nerve examination revealed temporal pallor and excavation in all affected individuals. Linkage analysis revealed significant lod scores with 9 markers. The highest lod score, 10.1 (theta = 0) [corrected], was obtained with marker D3S2305. Analysis of recombinants narrowed the disease interval to approximately 3.8 centimorgans, flanked by D3S3669 (centromeric) and D3S1305 (telomeric).

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients affected with dominant optic atrophy in this family progressed to legal blindness by middle age. Color vision testing is a sensitive method for detection of affected patients. The dominant optic atrophy locus, OPA1, has been refined by the identification of new flanking markers: D3S3669 (centromeric) and D3S1305 (telomeric).

Clinical course of a cohort in the Cuban epidemic optic and peripheral neuropathy

Nearly 51,000 Cubans were afflicted during an outbreak of an optic neuropathy (ON) and peripheral neuropathy (PN) between 1991 and 1993. We re-examined 14 of 20 affected individuals 16 months after an initial evaluation. The optic features were painless symmetric vision loss with poor visual acuity, color vision loss, central or cecocentral scotoma, optic disc pallor, and nerve fiber layer drop-out. The neurologic symptoms included stocking-glove sensory changes, hearing loss, leg cramps, sensory ataxia, hyperactive or absent reflexes, and complaints of memory loss. Two of 11 ON probands tested harbored Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)-associated mitochondrial DNA mutations. All patients had received multivitamin therapy. We performed comparisons using the paired two-tailed t test. On re-examination, 12 of 14 patients demonstrated improvement. One patient remained unchanged. One woman with the nt-3460 mtDNA mutation showed a decline in vision. In patients not harboring mtDNA mutations, overall visual acuity, color vision, and peripheral neuropathy manifestations improved significantly (p < 0.001 for each manifestation). Most of the patients with Cuban ON and PN improved on multivitamin therapy. The significance of the mtDNA mutations is unclear. In the 2 LHON patients, manifestation of the disease may have been precipitated by nutritional deficiency. Patients with poor recovery or further deterioration should be evaluated for other factors, including poor vitamin therapy compliance and alternative diagnoses.

[Positive diagnosis of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy using molecular genetics]

INTRODUCTION

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a bilateral optic atrophy, more common in males than in females. No specific clinical feature or biologic test exists to evidence LHON. We report here the case of a man affected with a nonfamilial bilateral optic atrophy, whose diagnostic remained uncertain for 17 years.

PATIENT AND METHODS

This patient was hospitalized at the age of 27 in order to establish diagnosis. He had an ophthalmologic examination once a year. He was also affected with chronic renal failure. Detection of the G to A mutation at position 11778 of the DNA was assessed by restriction enzyme digestion of amplified genomic DNA.

RESULTS

The 11778 mitochondrial DNA mutation was evidenced, in homoplasmic condition in white blood cells.

DISCUSSION

Molecular biology allows to substantiate the diagnosis of LHON and is relatively easy and cheap. Assessment of mitochondrial DNA provides a useful diagnostic tool for nonfamilial or atypical cases of LHON.

Refinement of the dominant optic atrophy locus (OPA1) to a 1.4-cM interval on chromosome 3q28-3q29, within a 3-Mb YAC contig

Dominant optic atrophy, type Kjer, is an autosomal dominant eye disease that is characterized by progressive optic atrophy with onset in early childhood, decrease of visual acuity, colour vision defects and centrocecal scotoma. By examination of 5 Danish families and the use of polymorphic markers, we have refined the localization of the OPA1 locus and assigned it to a 1.4-cM interval on chromosome 3q28-3q29, between markers D3S3669 and D3S3562. This localizes the gene on a 3-Mb YAC contig covering the disease locus. We have also located a possible candidate gene HRY to this contig.

Wolfram (DIDMOAD) syndrome and Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) are associated with distinct mitochondrial DNA haplotypes

Because Wolfram (or DIDMOAD) syndrome is supposed to be a mitochondrial (mt)-mediated disease, we investigated a group of eight DIDMOAD patients with respect to point mutations of the mtDNA thus far described as being associated with defined mitochondrial disorders such as MELAS, MERRF, and LHON. Furthermore, to screen DIDMOAD patients for other mtDNA defects we used Southern blot analysis to detect mtDNA length mutations and rearrangements as well as PCR-SSCP and direct sequencing to screen all ND genes (complex I of the respiratory chain), the 22 tRNAs, and a part of the cyt b gene for unknown mutations. As a disease control group, 17 LHON patients (harboring one of the primary LHON mutations) were included in this study because of the overlapping clinical symptoms (optic atrophy) in both syndromes. We compared mtDNA variants identified in DIDMOAD patients with those found in LHON patients as well as in a control group consisting of 67 healthy German blood donors. In total, the control group was characterized by 29 polymorphic sites in ND and tRNA genes that define certain major Caucasian haplotypes. We found that a cluster of nucleotide exchanges at nucleotide positions (nps) 4216 and 11,251 roughly discriminates controls (12/67 controls, 18%) from the disease groups (6/8 DIDMOAD patients, 75%; 10/17 LHON patients, 59%). All 4216-positive LHON patients (10 patients) were concentrated in a haplogroup defined by additional exchanges at nps 10,398, 12,612, and 13,708 (haplogroup A), while the bulk of 4216-positive DIDMOAD patients (5 patients) were found in a distinct haplogroup consisting of nucleotide exchanges at nps 4917, 10,463, 13,368, 14,233, and 15,928. The frequencies of both haplogroups were significantly lower in the control group versus the respective disease groups. A more detailed analysis was performed by sequencing the two hypervariable regions of the non-coding D-loop region from patients and controls and corroborated the ranging in the two major haplogroups. Thus, the different clinical features of the mitochondrial disease groups investigated here corresponded to different clusters of mtDNA variants, which might act as predisposing haplotypes, increasing the risk for disease.