Protein Chips Based on Recombinant Antibody Fragments: A Highly Sensitive Approach as Detected by Mass Spectrometry

With the human genome in a first sequence draft and several other genomes being finished this year, the existing information gap between genomics and proteomics is becoming increasingly evident. The analysis of the proteome is, however, much more complicated because the synthesis and structural requirements of functional proteins are different from the easily handled oligonucleotides, for which a first analytical breakthrough already has come in the use of DNA chips. In comparison with the DNA microarrays, the protein arrays, or protein chips, offer the distinct possibility of developing a rapid global analysis of the entire proteome. Thus, the concept of comparing proteomic maps of healthy and diseased cells may allow us to understand cell signaling and metabolic pathways and will form a novel base for pharmaceutical companies to develop future therapeutics much more rapidly. This report demonstrates the possibilities of designing protein chips based on specially constructed, small recombinant antibody fragments using nanostructure surfaces with biocompatible characteristics, resulting in sensitive detection in the 600-amol range. The assay readout allows the determination of single or multiple antigen-antibody interactions. Mass identity of the antigens, currently with a resolution of 8000, enables the detection of structural modifications of single proteins.

Silicon microstructures for high-speed and high-sensitivity protein identifications

Silicon microtechnology has been used to develop a microstructure toolbox in order to enable high accuracy protein identification. During the last 2 years we developed and applied monocrystalline silicon structures and established new automated protein analysis platforms. The development of a high throughput protein platform is presented where fully automated protein identifications are performed. It includes the reduction and alkylation of the protein sample in a standard 96- or 384-well plate format prior to injection of 1 microl samples into the continuous flow based microtechnology platform. The processed sample is transferred to a microchip nanovial array target using piezoelectric microdispensing. Identification is made by MALDI-TOF MS and a database search. After the initial sample reduction and alkylation period of 50 min the platform can digest and process protein samples at a speed of 100 samples in 210 min. An optional configuration of the platform, operating the dispenser in the 'static mode', enables on-target enrichment of low abundant proteins and peptides e.g. from 2DE samples. This makes detection at the low attomole level possible.

Analysis of regulatory phosphorylation sites in ZAP-70 by capillary high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

A methodology for the rapid and quantitative analysis of phosphorylation sites in proteins is presented. The coupling of capillary high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) allowed one to distinguish phosphorylation sites based on retention time and mass difference from complex peptide mixtures. The methodology was first evaluated and validated for a mixture of non-, mono-, and dityrosine-phosphorylated synthetic peptides, corresponding to the tryptic fragment 485-496 (ALGADDSYYTAR) of the human protein tyrosine kinase ZAP-70. The limits of detection for the non-, mono- and diphosphorylated peptides were about 15, 40 and 100 fmol, respectively, when using a 300 microm I.D. column. Application of the method was extended to identify phosphopeptides generated from a trypsin digest of recombinant autophosphorylated ZAP-70, in particular with respect to quantifying the status at the regulatory phosphorylation sites Tyr-492 and Tyr-493. Combination of chromatographic and on-line tandem mass spectrometry data allowed one to ascertain the identity of the detected peptides, a prerequisite to analyses in more complex biological samples. As an extension to the methodology described above, we evaluated the feasibility of interfacing capillary HPLC to matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), using a micromachined piezoelectric flow-through dispenser as the interface. This enabled direct arraying of chromatographically separated components onto a target plate that was precoated with matrix for subsequent analysis by MALDI-TOF-MS without further sample handling.

Nuclear translocation of antizyme and expression of ornithine decarboxylase and antizyme are developmentally regulated

The polyamines are important regulators of cell growth and differentiation. Cells acquire polyamines by energy-dependent transport and by synthesis where the highly regulated ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) catalyzes the first and rate-controlling step. Inactivation of ODC is mainly exerted by antizyme (AZ), a 20--25 kDa polyamine-induced protein that binds to ODC, inactivates it, and targets it for degradation by the 26S proteasome without ubiquitination. In the present study, we have performed a systematic analysis of the expression of ODC and AZ, at the mRNA and protein levels, during mouse development. The expression patterns for ODC and AZ were found to be developmentally regulated, suggesting important functions for the polyamines in early embryogenesis, axonogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal interaction, and in apoptosis. In addition, AZ protein was found to translocate to the nucleus in a developmentally regulated manner. The nuclear localization is consistent with the fact that the amino acid sequence of AZ exhibits features that characterize nuclear proteins. Interestingly, we found that cultivation of mandibular components of the first branchial arch in the presence of a selective proteasome inhibitor caused ODC accumulation in the nucleus of a subset of cells, suggesting that the observed nuclear translocation of AZ is linked to proteasome-mediated ODC degradation in the nucleus. The presence of AZ in the nucleus may suggest that nuclear ODC activity is under tight control, and that polyamine production can be rapidly interrupted when those developmental events, which depend on access to nuclear polyamines, have been completed.

Population genetic structure of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) within a northern boreal forest stream

Brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) population genetic structure and its temporal stability were studied within a small forest stream in central Sweden using five microsatellite loci. Both resident and migrating brown trout are present in the watershed. Tissue samples were collected from seven sections of the stream during two consecutive years. No differences were found in multilocus FST estimates between years within sections except in one case. Moreover, differences between age cohorts within sample sections were rare. The low interannual variation and the low heterogeny between cohorts is interpreted as indications of temporal stability. Pairwise multilocus FST estimates increased with increasing geographic distance, indicating isolation by distance. It is argued that the brown trout of the Färsån stream represent a population complex. The structure is probably maintained by precise natal homing and a limited, but important, amount of gene flow between closely situated sections within the stream supporting a stepping-stone model of gene flow.

Pravastatin treatment increases collagen content and decreases lipid content, inflammation, metalloproteinases, and cell death in human carotid plaques: implications for plaque stabilization

BACKGROUND

The clinical benefits of lipid lowering with statins are attributed to changes in plaque composition leading to lesion stability, but supporting clinical data from human studies are lacking. Therefore, we investigated the effect of 3 months of pravastatin treatment on composition of human carotid plaques removed during carotid endarterectomy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Consecutive patients with symptomatic carotid artery stenosis received 40 mg/d pravastatin (n=11) or no lipid-lowering therapy (n=13; control subjects) for 3 months before scheduled carotid endarterectomy. Carotid plaque composition was assessed with special stains and immunocytochemistry with quantitative image analysis. Plaques from the pravastatin group had less lipid by oil red O staining (8.2+/-8.4% versus 23.9+/-21.1% of the plaque area, P<0.05), less oxidized LDL immunoreactivity (13.3+/-3.6% versus 22.0+/-6.5%, P<0.001), fewer macrophages (15.0+/-10.2% versus 25.3+/-12.5%, P<0.05), fewer T cells (11.2+/-9.3% versus 24.3+/-13.4%, P<0.05), less matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) immunoreactivity (3.6+/-3.9% versus 8.4+/-5.3%, P<0.05), greater tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) immunoreactivity (9.0+/-6.2% versus 3.1+/-3.9%, P<0.05), and a higher collagen content by Sirius red staining (12.4+/-3.1% versus 7.5+/-3.5%, P<0.005). Cell death by TUNEL staining was reduced in the pravastatin group (17.7+/-7.8% versus 32.0+/-12.6%, P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

-Pravastatin decreased lipids, lipid oxidation, inflammation, MMP-2, and cell death and increased TIMP-1 and collagen content in human carotid plaques, confirming its plaque-stabilizing effect in humans.

Downregulation of bactericidal peptides in enteric infections: a novel immune escape mechanism with bacterial DNA as a potential regulator

Antibacterial peptides are active defense components of innate immunity. Several studies confirm their importance at epithelial surfaces as immediate barrier effectors in preventing infection. Here we report that early in Shigella spp. infections, expression of the antibacterial peptides LL-37 and human beta-defensin-1 is reduced or turned off. The downregulation is detected in biopsies from patients with bacillary dysenteries and in Shigella- infected cell cultures of epithelial and monocyte origin. This downregulation of immediate defense effectors might promote bacterial adherence and invasion into host epithelium and could be an important virulence parameter. Analyses of bacterial molecules causing the downregulation indicate Shigella plasmid DNA as one mediator.

Signal amplification using "spot-on-a-chip" technology for the identification of proteins via MALDI-TOF MS

The presented "spot-on-a-chip" technology enables easy enrichment of samples in the low nanomolar (1-5 nM) range and provides a fast and reliable automated sample preparation method for performing matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis with high sensitivity and throughput. Through microdispensing, which allows accurate deposition of 60-pL droplets, dilute samples were enriched by making multiple droplet depositions in nanovials. The sample was confined to a defined spot area (300 x 300 microm), and multiple depositions increase the surface density of analyte in the nanovial, thereby providing detection of low attomole levels. The impact of the nanovial geometry with respect to the MALDI-TOF MS resolution for peptides deposited in the microfabricated silicon vials was investigated and the optimal geometry and size were determined. The spot-on-a-chip technology, that is, the combination of microdispensing, micromachined silicon nanovials and on-spot enrichment provides a signal amplification of at least 10-50 times as compared to an ordinary sample preparation. The linearity of the enrichment effect is shown by the analysis of a peptide mixture at the 5 nM level. The signal amplification provided by the spot-on-a-chip enrichment is demonstrated by the analysis of relevant biological samples, interleukin-8 from a spiked cell supernatant, and by successful protein identification of an excised spot from a high-sensitivity silver-stained two-dimensional electrophoresis gel separation.

A role for the basic patch and the C terminus of RanGTP in regulating the dynamic interactions with importin beta, CRM1 and RanBP1

Transport of macromolecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm involves the recognition of intrinsic localization signals by either import or export receptors. The interaction of the receptors with their cargo is regulated by the small GTPase Ran in its GTP bound state. We have investigated the interaction of RanGTP with the import factor, importin beta, the export factor, CRM1, and the Ran binding protein, RanBP1, in solution. Importin beta specifically protected residues in the switch regions and basic patch region of Ran against proteolytic cleavage, whereas RanBP1 protected the C terminus. Moreover, the binding of importin beta induced a conformational change in the structure of Ran leading to an exposure of the C terminus and stimulated the binding of RanBP1. Mutating the basic patch (HRKK(142)) of Ran resulted in an increased binding of RanBP1 and weakened importin beta binding. In contrast to wild-type Ran, the mutant Ran could be released from importin beta independently of importin alpha. These data provide experimental support for a model in which the accessibility of the C terminus of Ran is influenced by an intramolecular interaction between the basic patch and the C-terminal acidic DEDDDL(216) motif. Binding of importin beta probably disrupts this interaction causing an exposure of the C-terminal extension, which is favorable for RanBP1 binding. Interestingly, basic patch mutations abolish CRM1 interaction, indicating that the determinants for RanGTP binding to the export factor, CRM1, is different from the import factor, importin beta.

Matrilinear phylogeography of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in Europe and postglacial colonization of the Baltic Sea area

Sixty-four samples from 46 salmon populations totalling 2369 specimens were used for polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the mitochondrial ND1 region. The final analyses included 3095 specimens from 60 populations in Northern Europe. A subsample was analysed by RFLP of ND3/4/5/6. Representative RFLP haplotypes from different parts of the distribution area were sequenced and the phylogeny of European haplotypes and their relations to the North American lineage was described. The four common European haplotypes derive from the ancestral ND1-BBBA (rooting the European clade to the North American) by one-step substitutions: AAAA < AABA < BBBA > BBBB. The Swedish west-coast populations differ from the geographically close southern Baltic, indicating absence of inward and limited outward gene flow through the Danish straits during the last 8000 years. Within the Baltic Sea, only three ND1 haplotypes were detected and there was no variation for ND3/4/5/6. In the whole southern Baltic and in lakes Vänern, Ladoga and Onega the haplotype AABA dominated. Proposed postglacial colonization routes to the Baltic Sea are discussed in relation to the haplotype distribution pattern.

The effects of UV-irradiation on the ESR-dosimetry of tooth enamel

Tooth enamel has been shown to be an excellent dosimeter material for retrospective dosimetry. A complication is that it is sensitive to ultraviolet light (UV), creating a signal that interferes with the dosimetric signal. Irradiation of tooth enamel by UV-light induces a mixture of stable and unstable free radicals. The unstable radicals disappear in about three weeks. Stable radicals are created both at the dosimetric peak and at the same g-value as the native peak. The stable peak coinciding with the native peak shows saturation behavior both for UVA/B- and UVC-light. The signal intensity from the sun is roughly estimated to induce a signal comparable to 15 mGy/h from 60 kV X-rays. The blue lamps used by dentists when hardening plastic repairs contain a narrow tail in the UVA/B-region, and it is shown here that these lamps also contribute to the stable peak coincident with the native peak. The contribution to the dosimetry peak, though negligible, at least for the irradiation times is used in this work. Most of the problems with UVA/B-induced signal contributions can probably be avoided by not using front teeth and teeth close to plastic repairs.

Consensus predictions of membrane protein topology

We have explored the possibility that consensus predictions of membrane protein topology might provide a means to estimate the reliability of a predicted topology. Using five current topology prediction methods and a test set of 60 Escherichia coli inner membrane proteins with experimentally determined topologies, we find that prediction performance varies strongly with the number of methods that agree, and that the topology of nearly half of all E. coli inner membrane proteins can be predicted with high reliability (>90% correct predictions) by a simple majority-vote approach.

Skin fibroblasts from spermine synthase-deficient hemizygous gyro male (Gy/Y) mice overproduce spermidine and exhibit increased resistance to oxidative stress but decreased resistance to UV irradiation

Hemizygous gyro male (Gy/Y) mice are a model for X-linked hypophosphataemic rickets. As in humans, the disease is caused by deletions in the Phex gene, a phosphate-regulating gene having homologies with endopeptidases on the X chromosome. Some phenotypic abnormalities in Gy/Y mice have recently been attributed to the fact that the Gy deletion also includes the neighbouring spermine synthase gene, resulting in spermine deficiency. Spermine and its precursors spermidine and putrescine are essential for cell growth and differentiation. As a novel method for studying the function of spermine, we established primary cultures of skin fibroblasts from hemizygous Gy/Y mice. The Gy/Y cells contained no detectable spermine. In view of the fact that spermine is a free-radical scavenger in vitro, we were surprised to find that Gy/Y cells were more resistant to oxidative stress than their normal (X/Y) counterparts. However, our finding that spermidine accumulates markedly in the spermine-deficient Gy/Y cells can probably explain this increased resistance. It is the first indication that spermidine can serve as a free-radical scavenger in vivo and not only in vitro. When subjecting the Gy/Y cells to UV-C irradiation we made another interesting finding: the mutant cells were more sensitive than the normal X/Y cells. This finding indicates that spermine, probably because of its high-affinity binding to DNA, is important in protection against chromatin damage.

The Harrington reconstruction for advanced periacetabular metastatic destruction: good outcome in 32 patients

We report the outcome in 32 patients operated on for advanced periacetabular metastatic destruction, where all but 2 had Harrington class III destruction. The patients were operated on using the Harrington reconstruction technique, where threaded pins and cement and a total hip replacement are used to reconstruct the acetabulum and ilium. The median survival was 11 (0-106+) months. 13 patients lived for a year or more. At follow-up after 1 year, 10 of the 13 were free of pain at rest and weight-bearing, 6 were walking with and 7 without support, and 11 lived outside a health care facility. 2 patients died within 2 weeks of surgery, both of excessive peroperative bleeding. 2 patients had dislocations, 1 developed a deep infection, and 2 patients deep vein thrombosis. There were no complications caused by erroneous pin placement or intraoperative thromboembolic incidents. There were no mechanical failures, or radiographic signs of loosening, of the pelvic components. The Harrington reconstruction technique is an effective and long-lasting method to relieve pain and restore function in patients with advanced periacetabular metastatic destruction.

7beta-hydroxycholesterol induces Ca(2+) oscillations, MAP kinase activation and apoptosis in human aortic smooth muscle cells

In the present study, we characterize the early cytotoxic effects of 7beta-hydroxycholesterol, a major cytotoxin in oxidized LDL, in human aortic smooth muscle cells. Within a few minutes after addition, 7beta-hydroxycholesterol induced Ca(2+) oscillations with a frequency of approximately 0.3-0.4 min(-1). A few hours later, thapsigargin-sensitive Ca(2+) pools were depleted, indicating that 7beta-hydroxycholesterol perturbs intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis. The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) ERK1 and ERK2 (but not JNK) were activated within 5 min after addition of 7beta-hydroxycholesterol. The side-chain hydroxylated oxysterols 25-hydroxycholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol were more potent in inducing apoptosis than 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and cholesterol-5alpha,6alpha-epoxide, as determined by TUNEL staining. Addition of TNFalpha (10 ng/ml) and IFNgamma (20 ng/ml) enhanced the cytotoxicity of oxysterols and potentiated apoptosis. The cytokines alone were not toxic to smooth muscle cells at these concentrations. 25-Hydroxycholesterol and 7beta-hydroxycholesterol but not cholesterol inhibited protein synthesis at 4-8 h as determined by [35S]methionine incorporation assay. Morphologically, oxysterol-induced cell death was characterized by disorganization of the ER and Golgi membranes. The Ca(2+) and ERK signals preceded the ultrastructural changes induced by 7beta-hydroxycholesterol.

Tailored fluorouracil, epirubicin, and cyclophosphamide compared with marrow-supported high-dose chemotherapy as adjuvant treatment for high-risk breast cancer: a randomised trial. Scandinavian Breast Group 9401 study

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy drug distribution varies greatly among individual patients. Therefore, we developed an individualised fluorouracil, epirubicin, cyclophosphamide (FEC) regimen to improve outcomes in patients with high-risk early breast cancer. We then did a randomised trial to compare this individually tailored FEC regimen with conventional adjuvant chemotherapy followed by consolidation with high-dose chemotherapy with stem-cell support.

METHODS

525 women younger than 60 years of age with high-risk primary breast cancer were randomised after surgery to receive nine cycles of tailored FEC to haematological equitoxicity with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) support (n=251), or three cycles of FEC at standard doses followed by high-dose chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and carboplatin (CTCb), and peripheral-blood stem-cell or bone-marrow support (n=274). Both groups received locoregional radiation therapy and tamoxifen for 5 years. The primary outcome measure was relapse-free survival, and analysis was by intention to treat.

FINDINGS

At a median follow-up of 34.3 months, there were 81 breast-cancer relapses in the tailored FEC group versus 113 in the CTCb group (double triangular method p=0.04). 60 deaths occurred in the tailored FEC group and 82 in the CTCb group (log-rank p=0.12). Patients in the CTCb group experienced more grade 3 or 4 acute toxicity compared with the tailored FEC group (p<0.0001). Two treatment-related deaths (0.7%) occurred in the CTCb group. Six patients in the tailored FEC group developed acute myeloid leukaemia and three developed myelodysplastic syndrome.

INTERPRETATION

Tailored FEC with G-CSF support resulted in a significantly improved relapse-free survival and fewer grade 3 and 4 toxicities compared with marrow-supported high-dose chemotherapy with CTCb as adjuvant therapy of women with high-risk primary breast cancer.

The tissue-specific regulation of the carboxyl ester lipase gene in exocrine pancreas differs significantly between mouse and human

The carboxyl ester lipase (CEL) gene is highly expressed in exocrine pancreas and expression of the human CEL gene is mediated by a strong tissue-specific enhancer, which is absolutely necessary for high-level expression. The mouse promoter, on the other hand, does not contain a corresponding enhancer element, but instead is totally dependent on another pancreas-specific element. This element is identified as a pancreatic transcription factor 1 (PTF 1)-binding site. The human CEL promoter also contains a putative PTF 1 element located at a position corresponding to the essential PTF 1 site in the mouse promoter. However, nucleotide changes in the human promoter 5' flanking this PTF 1 site have created an overlapping CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)-like binding motif, interfering with the binding of PTF 1. Hence, our findings provide an example of genetic divergence between species not accompanied by difference in function.

In vivo stimulation of vascular plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production by very low-density lipoprotein involves transcription factor binding to a VLDL-responsive element

High plasma levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. There is also a close relation between high plasma levels of PAI-1 and hypertriglyceridemia. Cell culture studies have shown that very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) increases the production and secretion of PAI-1 in endothelial cells and hepatocytes, suggesting a possible mechanism for this association. To determine whether VLDL stimulates PAI-1 production in vascular cells also in vivo, Sprague-Dawley rats were injected intravenously with 6 mg/kg of VLDL (derived from human subjects with type IV hyperlipidemia). Previous studies have demonstrated that this results in an accumulation of human VLDL in the aorta and other arteries followed by increased nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB) activation. Endothelial, but not smooth muscle cells, showed a basal PAI-1 mRNA and protein expression as assessed by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Six to twenty-four hours after the VLDL injection, lipoprotein particle accumulation was seen in the aortic wall, which was accompanied by increasing PAI-1 mRNA and protein expression in endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Within the rat PAI-1 promoter we identified a sequence located at -589 to -571 with 74% homology with the recently described VLDL responsive element in the human PAI-1 promoter and located adjacent to a 4-guanosine motif presumably corresponding to the human 4G/5G polymorphism. Transient transfection studies showed that VLDL exerts its stimulatory effects on rat PAI-1 gene expression in vascular cells by interaction with promoter sequences located within bp -656 and -505. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that VLDL increases the binding of as yet incompletely characterized factors to this response element. Taken together these observations support a direct influence of VLDL on vascular PAI-1 gene expression ill vivo. This stimulation is exerted on the level of PAI-1 gene transcription, and involves transcription factor binding to a VLDL responsive element adjacent to a 4G motif within the PAI-1 promoter.

Accumulation of LDL in rat arteries is associated with activation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression

Activation of vascular inflammation in response to hyperlipidemia is believed to play an important role during the early stages of atherogenesis. We demonstrate here that exposure of cultured, rat aortic smooth muscle cells to low density lipoprotein (LDL) stimulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNA and protein expression. Oxidative modification of LDL resulted in a reduction of this stimulatory effect. To analyze whether a similar response also occurs in vivo, we used a recently developed model in which the effects of a rapid accumulation of human LDL in rat arteries can be studied. As previously reported, epitopes specific for human apolipoprotein B began to accumulate in the aorta within 2 to 6 hours after injection of 6 mg of human LDL. This was followed by expression of oxidized LDL-specific epitopes after 12 hours. There was no vascular expression of TNF-alpha at baseline or in phosphate-buffered saline-injected control rats. However, 24 hours after injection of native LDL, there was a marked induction of TNF-alpha mRNA and immunoreactivity in the aorta and other large arteries, whereas injection of oxidized LDL was without effect in this respect. Preincubation of LDL with the antioxidant probucol before injection markedly decreased the expression of TNF-alpha immunoreactivity. The present findings support the notion that LDL may activate arterial expression of TNF-alpha and suggest 1 possible mechanism for the inflammatory response in the early stages of atherosclerosis. The role of LDL oxidation in this process remains to be fully elucidated.

Genetic lineages and postglacial colonization of grayling (Thymallus thymallus, Salmonidae) in Europe, as revealed by mitochondrial DNA analyses

In stark contrast to other species within the Salmonidae family, phylogeographic information on European grayling, Thymallus thymallus, is virtually nonexistent. In this paper, we utilized mitochondrial DNA polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (mtDNA PCR-RFLP) and sequence variation to infer the postglacial dispersal routes of T. thymallus into and within northern Europe, and to locate geographically, potential evolutionarily distinct populations. Mitochondrial analyses revealed a total of 27 T. thymallus haplotypes which clustered into three distinct lineages. Average pairwise interlineage divergence was four and nine times higher than average intralineage divergence for RFLP and sequence data, respectively. Two European grayling individuals from the easternmost sample in Russia exhibited haplotypes more genetically diverged from any T. thymallus haplotype than T. arcticus haplotype, and suggested that hybridization/introgression zone of these two sister species may extend much further west than previously thought. Geographic division of the lineages was generally very clear with northern Europe comprising of two genetically differentiated areas: (i) Finland, Estonia and north-western Russia; and (ii) central Germany, Poland and western Fennoscandia. Average interpopulation divergence in North European T. thymallus was 10 times higher than that observed in a recent mtDNA study of North American T. arcticus. We conclude that (i) North European T. thymallus populations have survived dramatic Pleistocene temperature oscillations and originate from ancient eastern and central European refugia; (ii) genetic divergence of population groups within northern Europe is substantial and geographically distinct; and (iii) the remainder of Europe harbours additional differentiated assemblages that likely descend from a Danubian refugium. These findings should provide useful information for developing appropriate conservation strategies for European grayling and exemplify a case with a clear need for multinational co-operation for managing and conserving biodiversity.

Efficacy and safety of short-term itraconazole in tinea pedis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Treatment of plantar or moccasin-type tinea pedis with conventional oral antifungal agents produces poor response rates. Itraconazole is a synthetic, broad-spectrum, orally active antifungal agent with pronounced antimycotic activity.

OBJECTIVE

To confirm the efficacy and safety of short-term treatment with itraconazole for plantar or moccasin-type tinea pedis.

METHODS

The study was a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Seventy-two patients with tinea pedis (plantar or moccasin-type) were treated with itraconazole (200 mg twice daily) or placebo for 1 week with an 8-week treatment-free follow-up period.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients were randomized to each treatment group. The overall success rate (mycological cure and clinical response) at the end-point of follow-up was significantly higher in the itraconazole group than in the placebo group (53 vs. 3%; p <0. 001). Mycological cure (56 vs. 8%; p <0.001) and clinical response rates (75 vs. 11%; p <0.001) were significantly higher after itraconazole treatment compared with placebo treatment. During treatment, adverse events were recorded in 7 patients in the itraconazole group and 2 patients in the placebo group. Adverse events were noted in 3 patients in the placebo group during follow-up. No serious adverse events were reported in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term treatment with itraconazole was significantly more effective than placebo in tinea pedis. The safety and tolerability profile or itraconazole was comparable with placebo.

Airborne cell analysis

A miniaturized analysis system for the study of living cells and biochemical reactions in microdroplets was developed. The technique utilizes an in-house-developed piezoelectric flow-through droplet dispenser for precise reagent supply and an ultrasonic levitator for contactless sample handling. A few-cell study was performed with living primary adipocytes. Droplets (500 nL) containing 3-15 individual cells were acoustically levitated. The addition of beta-adrenergic agonists into the levitated droplet using the droplet dispenser stimulated adipocyte lipolysis, leading to free fatty acid release and a consequent pH decrease of the surrounding buffer. The addition of insulin antagonized lipolysis and hence also the decrease in pH. The changes in pH, i.e., the cell response in the droplet, were followed using a pH-dependent fluorophore continuously monitored by fluorescence imaging detection. An image analysis computer program was employed to calculate the droplet intensities. To counteract droplet evaporation, found to affect the fluorescence intensities, a separate dispenser was used to continually add water, thus keeping the droplet volume constant.

Protein identification platform utilizing micro dispensing technology interfaced to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

An integrated protein microcharacterization/identification platform has been developed. The system has been designed to allow a high flexibility in order to tackle challenging analytical problems. The platform comprises a cooled microautosampler, an integrated system for microcolumn HPLC, and a capillary reversed-phase column that is interfaced to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) system via a low internal volume flow-through microdispenser. The chromatographic separation is continuously transferred onto a MALDI target plate as discrete spots as the dispenser ejects bursts of droplets of the column effluent in a precise array pattern. A refrigerated microfraction collector was coupled to the outlet of the flow-through microdispenser enabling enrichment and re-analysis of interesting fractions. The use of target plates pre-coated with matrix simplified and increased the robustness of the system. By including a separation step prior to the MALDI-TOF-MS analysis and hereby minimizing suppression effects allowed us to obtain higher sequence coverage of proteins compared to conventional MALDI sample preparation methodology. Additionally, synthetic peptides corresponding to autophosphorylated forms of the tryptic fragment 485-496 (ALGADDSYYTAR) of tyrosine kinase ZAP-70 were identified at sensitivities reaching 150 amol.

The carboxyl-terminal fragment of alpha1-antitrypsin is present in atherosclerotic plaques and regulates inflammatory transcription factors in primary human monocytes

alpha1-Antitrypsin (AAT) serine proteinase inhibitor is found in most biological fluids, diffuses into most tissues, and is an important factor in controlling tissue damage by proteases in inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis. We have previously reported that the C-terminal fragment (C-36) generated during the cleavage of AAT by proteinases forms amyloid fibrils which have biological effects unrelated to precursor functions. Here we show that the C-36 fragment is present in atherosclerotic plaques, particularly within the fibrous cap at the base of the lipid core. We also found that human monocyte stimulation with C-36 fibrils led to a strong activation of both peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha and gamma (PPARalpha and PPARgamma) at 1, 2, and 18 h of cell culture. A parallel increase in the intracellular lipid accumulation was also observed. Furthermore, stimulation of monocytes with C-36 for 18 h led to activator protein-1 (AP-1) and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation. These data for the first time demonstrate the peptide of AAT as a component of atherosclerotic plaques and as a novel activator of PPARalpha, PPARgamma, NF-kappaB, and AP-1 in cultured monocytes. Taken together, the effects of the peptide represent a new mechanism of monocyte activation that may be of importance not only in atherogenesis, but also in other inflammatory processes.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation and silent period in spasmodic torticollis

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to study the corticobulbar projections to neck muscles in cervical dystonia.

DESIGN

We compared both the motor evoked potentials and the electromyographic silent period after transcranial magnetic stimulation from sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles in a group of 13 patients with spasmodic torticollis with those of 20 healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

With the target muscle at rest, no changes of motor threshold, motor evoked potentials latency, and amplitude were observed in dystonic patients. With facilitation, the mean amplitude of the motor evoked potentials was increased in patients compared with controls, the significant difference being for the trapezius muscle, whereas the latency did not differ between groups. The cortical silent period was significantly shorter in dystonic patients than in healthy subjects in both muscles. The duration of the cortical silent period recorded from the sternocleidomastoid muscle showed a positive correlation with the degree of neurologic disability assessed by Tsui's scale. No abnormalities of both nerve conduction velocity and peripheral silent period by stimulation of accessory nerve were found.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate an impairment of the mechanisms of inhibitory motor control in patients with spasmodic torticollis, which could be the result of a decrease of the basal ganglia inhibitory output over the motor cortex.