2-tert-butyl-8-quinolinamines exhibit potent blood schizontocidal antimalarial activity via inhibition of heme crystallization

We have recently reported that the attachment of a bulky metabolically stable tert-butyl group at the C-2 position of a quinoline ring in primaquine results in a tremendous improvement in the blood schizontocidal antimalarial activity of 8-quinolinamine. Because free heme released from hemoglobin catabolism in a malarial parasite is highly toxic, the parasite protects itself mainly by crystallization of heme into insoluble nontoxic hemozoin. We now demonstrate the ability of 2-tert-butylprimaquine to inhibit in vitro beta-hematin formation, to form a complex with heme with a stoichiometry of 1:1, and to enhance heme-induced hemolysis. The results described herein indicate that a major improvement in the blood-schizontocidal antimalarial activity of 2-tert-butylprimaquine might be due to a disturbance of heme catabolism pathway in the malarial parasite.

Simple colorimetric inhibition assay of heme crystallization for high-throughput screening of antimalarial compounds

Current assays for screening new antimalarials need initiators of beta-hematin formation that require laborious preparation, special devices, and substrates. In this study, based on reduction of heme absorption in beta-hematin formation, we developed a simple colorimetric assay using Tween 20 as an initiator and a microplate reader for high-throughput screening of inhibitors of beta-hematin formation.

Inhibition assay of β-hematin formation initiated by lecithin for screening new antimalarial drugs

Measurement of heme crystallization provides a tool for screening new antimalarial drugs. Current assays for heme crystallization have employed initiators such as thermo, histidine-rich proteins, and lipids extracted from parasites and infected plasma. These initiators are unnatural or require laborious steps to prepare. In this study, we used a commercially available lipid, lecithin, a kind of phospholipid containing about 50% unsaturated fatty acids, as an initiator for heme crystal (beta-hematin) formation. We demonstrated that the inhibition of lecithin-based beta-hematin formation by antimalarial drugs is highly correlated with the preformed beta-hematin-based method. In addition, the lecithin-based assay is sensitive and convenient for large-scale screening of new novel antimalarials. We also indicated that dimethyl sulfoxide is an ideal solvent for preparation of heme stock solution, which is stable and can be used for 1 month.

Leukocyte activation by malarial pigment

Malarial pigment, a unique hemozoin crystal composed of unit cells of heme dimers, is present in large amounts in circulating monocytes and neutrophils and can persist unchanged in macrophages for several months. In the present study, we investigated the effect of hemozoin not only on macrophages, but also on neutrophils. We used beta-hematin (BH), a chemically synthetic crystal structurally identical to hemozoin, for these studies. In vitro, BH up-regulated the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in whole blood and in isolated peritoneal macrophages, indicating that hemozoin is able to stimulate monocytes. BH stimulated murine peritoneal neutrophils to express macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2), a homologue of human interleukin-8 that is used as a marker of neutrophil activation. Injecting BH into the peritoneal cavity resulted in a dose-dependent migration of neutrophils and a high level of myeloperoxidase activity of peritoneal cells. Finally, BH directly induced neutrophil chemotaxis in vitro. Taken together, these results suggest that the malarial pigment hemozoin can activate leukocytes and may participate in the pathology of severe malaria.

Treatment of fulminant liver failure by transplantation of microencapsulated primary or immortalized xenogeneic hepatocytes

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo function of hepatocytes after immortalization, cryopreservation, encapsulation, and xenotransplantation into mice with fulminant liver failure (FLF).

METHODS

Rat and human hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase digestion. Human hepatocytes were immortalized using lentiviral vectors. Rat and immortalized human hepatocytes (IHH) were encapsulated in 400 microm of alginate-poly-L-lysine (PLL; Sigma, Buchs, Switzerland)-alginate membranes and cryopreserved using a computerized device. In vitro, encapsulated hepatocytes (cryopreserved or noncryopreserved) were cultured; albumin secretion was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Microencapsulated (cryopreserved or noncryopreserved) hepatocytes were transplanted intraperitoneally to mice with FLF: group 1 (n = 10) transplantation of empty capsules; group 2 (n = 12) transplantation of free primary rat hepatocytes; group 3 (n = 12) transplantation of cryopreserved encapsulated rat hepatocytes; group 4 (n = 10) transplantation of encapsulated rat hepatocytes; group 5 (n = 9) transplantation of cryopreserved encapsulated IHH; group 6 (n = 10) transplantation of encapsulated IHH.

RESULTS

Compared with free primary hepatocytes, cryopreserved or noncryopreserved encapsulated rodent hepatocytes showed similar levels of continuous in vitro albumin secretion over 1 week. Cryopreserved or noncryopreserved encapsulated IHH showed minimal albumin secretion compared with free primary human hepatocytes. Fulminant liver failure, produced by a combination of acetaminophen and 30% hepatectomy, resulted in a 20% to 30% host survival. In groups 1 and 2, survival was unmodified, compared with untreated mice. For groups 3 and 4, transplantation of cryopreserved or noncryopreserved encapsulated rat hepatocytes significantly increased survival rates to 66% and 80%, respectively (P < .01). For groups 5 and 6, transplantation of cryopreserved or noncryopreserved encapsulated IHH improved host survival to 50% and 55%, respectively (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Primary rodent hepatocytes maintained synthetic functions after encapsulation and cryopreservation. Immortalized human hepatocytes showed minimal albumin secretion in the absence of encapsulation and cryopreservation, suggesting that hepatocytes lose some specific functions after immortalization. After induction of FLF in mice, intraperitoneal transplantation of encapsulated (primary or immortalized, cryopreserved or noncryopreserved) xenogeneic hepatocytes significantly improved survival. These results indicate that naive and genetically modified hepatocytes can be successfully encapsulated, stored by cryopreservation, and transplanted into xenogeneic recipients with FLF to sustain liver metabolic functions.

One-step concentration of malarial parasite-infected red blood cells and removal of contaminating white blood cells

Background

Isolation of a concentrated, living preparation of malarial parasite-infected red blood cells (PRBCs) that have low contamination of white blood cells (WBCs) facilitates research on the molecular, biochemical and immunological aspects of malarial parasites. This is currently carried out by a two-step method, including the concentration of PRBCs using density gradient centrifugation through Percoll or Nycodenz, followed by the removal of host WBCs using a cellulose powder column or a commercially available filtration unit. These two-step methods can help isolate sufficient PRBCs, but they are laborious. In this study, a simplified one-step procedure that takes advantage of the difference between diamagnetic low-spin oxyhaemoglobin and paramagnetic haemozoin (haem polymer) was described. The paramagnetic polymer is deposited in the food vacuoles of the parasite, allowing the use of magnetic separation to efficiently and rapidly concentrate PRBCs while removing contaminating host WBCs.

Methods

The magnetic removal of WBCs using a commercial LD column (MACS) was evaluated as a new method for concentrating and purifying PRBCs. To compare this method with the two density gradient centrifugation methods using Percoll or Nycodenz, we analysed the quantities of enriched PRBCs and contaminating host WBCs as well as the viability of malarial parasites in the final preparations.

Results

The quantity of PRBCs and the viability of malarial parasites in the isolated PRBCs were similar between magnetic and centrifugation methods. However, 90–99% of the contaminating WBCs were removed from the starting material using a magnetic column, whereas WBC content did not change using the Percoll or Nycodenz methods.

Conclusion

The use of a commercially available magnetic LD column is effective, safe and easy for the one-step purification of PRBCs. This simple method does not affect the viability of malarial parasites.

Enhancement of Heme-Induced Membrane Damage by the Anti-malarial Clotrimazole: the Role of Colloid-Osmotic Forces

Two recent studies have demonstrated that clotrimazole, a well-known potential antifungal agent, inhibits the in vitro growth of chloroquine-resistant strains of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. In a previous study, we suggested that clotrimazole acts as an anti-malarial agent by inhibiting heme catabolism in the malaria parasite and by enhancing heme-induced membrane damage. In this paper, we examined the mechanism of action by measuring hemolysis as an indicator of membrane damage. Our results showed that clotrimazole does not promote the binding of heme to membranes, and that the enhancement of heme-induced hemolysis by clotrimazole is not caused by lipid peroxidation or by oxidation of thiol groups in membrane proteins. Instead, clotrimazole inhibits glutathione-dependent heme degradation, resulting in an enhancement of heme-induced hemolysis. We also found that clotrimazole increases the susceptibility of erythrocytes to hypotonic lysis in the presence of heme and that sucrose could inhibit hemolysis induced by heme-clotrimazole complexes. Thus, it appears that the enhancement of heme-induced hemolysis by clotrimazole in our experiments is due to a colloid osmotic hemolysis mechanism. The hydrophobicity and the large molecular size of the heme-clotrimazole complex might be key factors for induction of hemolysis.

Neutralization of toxic heme by Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2

Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) has been suggested to be an initiator of the polymerization of heme, which is produced as by-product on the digestion of hemoglobin, and a promoter of the H(2)O(2)-induced degradation of heme in food vacuoles of the malarial parasite. In this work, we have designed PfHRP2 model peptides, R18 and R27 (18 and 27 residues, respectively), and used them for optical and electron spin resonance spectroscopic measurements to confirm that the axial ligands of the heme-PfHRP2 complex are the nitrogenous donors derived from the imidazole moieties of histidine residues of PfHRP2. In addition, we revealed that the affinities of R18 and R27 for heme (K(d) = 2.21 x 10(-6) M and 0.71 x 10(-6) M, respectively) might be as high as that of PfHRP2 (K(d) = 0.94 x 10(-6) M). The R27 peptide can remove heme from membrane-intercalated heme and inhibit heme-induced hemolysis. Therefore, we suggest another function of PfHRP2: it may play an important role in the neutralization of toxic heme in the parasite cytoplasm and infected erythrocytes by removing heme from heme-bound membranes or reducing heme-induced hemolysis.

Effect of antifungal azoles on the heme detoxification system of malarial parasite

The antimalarial activities of some antifungal azole agents (ketoconazole, miconazole, and clotrimazole) have been known for several years, however, their antimalarial mechanism remains equivocal. Our recent study showed that clotrimazole has a relative high affinity for heme, inhibits reduced glutathione-dependent heme catabolism, and enhances heme-induced hemolysis. In the present study, we have found that clotrimazole can remove heme from histidine rich peptide-heme complex, which initiates heme-polymerization in malaria. In addition, we show that two other azoles (ketoconazole and miconazole) behave similarly to clotrimazole in binding to heme: they bind to heme with similar affinities, remove heme from the histidine rich peptide-heme complex and from the reduced glutathione-heme complex to form stable heme-azole complexes with two nitrogenous ligands derived from the imidazole moieties of two azole molecules. We have also revealed that clotrimazole and miconazole have stronger promoting activities for heme-induced hemolysis than ketoconazole, implying that the stronger antimalarial activities of clotrimazole and miconazole might arise from their stronger ability to promote heme-induced hemolysis of clotrimazole and clotrimazole than that of ketoconazole. These results also suggest that ketoconazole and miconazole, like clotrimazole, might possess an antimalarial mechanism relating to their inhibition of heme polymerization and the degradation of reduced glutathione-dependent heme.

Clotrimazole binds to heme and enhances heme-dependent hemolysis: proposed antimalarial mechanism of clotrimazole

Two recent studies have demonstrated that clotrimazole, a potent antifungal agent, inhibits the growth of chloroquine-resistant strains of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, in vitro. We explored the mechanism of antimalarial activity of clotrimazole in relation to hemoglobin catabolism in the malaria parasite. Because free heme produced from hemoglobin catabolism is highly toxic to the malaria parasite, the parasite protects itself by polymerizing heme into insoluble nontoxic hemozoin or by decomposing heme coupled to reduced glutathione. We have shown that clotrimazole has a high binding affinity for heme in aqueous 40% dimethyl sulfoxide solution (association equilibrium constant: K(a) = 6.54 x 10(8) m(-2)). Even in water, clotrimazole formed a stable and soluble complex with heme and suppressed its aggregation. The results of optical absorption spectroscopy and electron spin resonance spectroscopy revealed that the heme-clotrimazole complex assumes a ferric low spin state (S = 1/2), having two nitrogenous ligands derived from the imidazole moieties of two clotrimazole molecules. Furthermore, we found that the formation of heme-clotrimazole complexes protects heme from degradation by reduced glutathione, and the complex damages the cell membrane more than free heme. The results described herein indicate that the antimalarial activity of clotrimazole might be due to a disturbance of hemoglobin catabolism in the malaria parasite.

The analysis of heparin-protein interactions using evanescent wave biosensor with regioselectively desulfated heparins as the ligands

Evanescent wave biosensor has been recently employed as a powerful tool for analyses of macromolecular interactions. In the present study, evanescent wave biosensor analysis was developed to analyze the heparin-protein interaction using as ligands a series of heparin derivatives regioselectively desulfated by chemical methods, particularly to evaluate the effect of each sulfate group of heparin. The method for immobilizing heparin on the cuvette of the evanescent wave biosensor equipment was optimized to obtain the high response required for accurate measurement. The best result was achieved when the amino group introduced at the reducing end of heparin was coupled with carboxymethyl dextran on the surface of the cuvette using glycolchitosan as a multivalent linker. The established system appeared to describe well the interactions of heparin with such proteins as acidic and basic fibroblast growth factors and tissue factor pathway inhibitor.

The cognitive P40, N60 and P100 components of somatosensory evoked potentials and the earliest electrical signs of sensory processing in man

Selective attention tasks involving random sequences of electrical stimulation of fingers were designed to compare cerebral potentials to identical stimuli (for example to the left thumb) when they are 'infrequent target' signals or 'frequent-neglected' signals in the series. The experiments were carried out in normal adult subjects. The early SEP components were analyzed for the earliest cortical electrical sign of information processing stages. Two new components, P40 (with onset at 26 msec) and N60, precede the processing positivity P100 which may be more significant in somatosensory processing than the negativities recorded in auditory or visual tasks.