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Wang J, Guo W, Chen W, Yu W, Tian Y, Fu L, Shi D, Tong B, Xiao X, Huang W, Deng W. Melatonin potentiates the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of ursolic acid in colon cancer cells by modulating multiple signaling pathways. J Pineal Res 2013; 54:406-16. [PMID: 23330808 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ursolic acid (UA), a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid carboxylic acid, is largely distributed in medical herbs and edible plants. Melatonin is an indoleamine compound produced in the pineal gland and also a plant-derived product. Both UA and melatonin have been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth in numerous studies, but they have never been combined altogether as an anticolon cancer treatment. In this study, we investigated whether the association between UA and melatonin leads to an enhanced antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activities in colon cancer SW480 and LoVo cells. We found that combined treatment with UA and melatonin significantly enhanced inhibition of cell viability and migration, promoted changes in cell morphology and spreading, and increased induction of apoptosis, thereby potentiating the effects of UA alone in colon cancer cells. Moreover, we found that the enhanced effects of UA and melatonin combination are mediated through simultaneous modulation of cytochrome c/caspase, MMP9/COX-2, and p300/NF-κB signaling pathways. Combined treatment with UA and melatonin triggered the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space into the cytosol, induced cleavage of caspase and PARP proteins, enhanced inhibition of MMP9 and COX-2 expression, promoted p300 and NF-κB translocation from cell nuclei to cytoplasm, and abrogated NF-κB binding and p300 recruitment to COX-2 promoter in colon cancer cells. These results, therefore, demonstrated that melatonin potentiated the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of UA in colon cancer cells by modulating multiple signaling pathways and suggest that such a combinational treatment might potentially become an effective way in colon cancer therapy.
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da Silva GNS, Maria NRG, Schuck DC, Cruz LN, de Moraes MS, Nakabashi M, Graebin C, Gosmann G, Garcia CRS, Gnoatto SCB. Two series of new semisynthetic triterpene derivatives: differences in anti-malarial activity, cytotoxicity and mechanism of action. Malar J 2013; 12:89. [PMID: 23497003 PMCID: PMC3616855 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The discovery and development of anti-malarial compounds of plant origin and semisynthetic derivatives thereof, such as quinine (QN) and chloroquine (CQ), has highlighted the importance of these compounds in the treatment of malaria. Ursolic acid analogues bearing an acetyl group at C-3 have demonstrated significant anti-malarial activity. With this in mind, two new series of betulinic acid (BA) and ursolic acid (UA) derivatives with ester groups at C-3 were synthesized in an attempt to improve anti-malarial activity, reduce cytotoxicity, and search for new targets. In vitro activity against CQ-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and an evaluation of cytotoxicity in a mammalian cell line (HEK293T) are reported. Furthermore, two possible mechanisms of action of anti-malarial compounds have been evaluated: effects on mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and inhibition of β-haematin formation. RESULTS Among the 18 derivatives synthesized, those having shorter side chains were most effective against CQ-sensitive P. falciparum 3D7, and were non-cytotoxic. These derivatives were three to five times more active than BA and UA. A DiOC(6)(3) ΔΨm assay showed that mitochondria are not involved in their mechanism of action. Inhibition of β-haematin formation by the active derivatives was weaker than with CQ. Compounds of the BA series were generally more active against P. falciparum 3D7 than those of the UA series. CONCLUSIONS Three new anti-malarial prototypes were obtained from natural sources through an easy and relatively inexpensive synthesis. They represent an alternative for new lead compounds for anti-malarial chemotherapy.
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Zhao C, Yin S, Dong Y, Guo X, Fan L, Ye M, Hu H. Autophagy-dependent EIF2AK3 activation compromises ursolic acid-induced apoptosis through upregulation of MCL1 in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Autophagy 2013; 9:196-207. [PMID: 23182854 PMCID: PMC3552883 DOI: 10.4161/auto.22805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpenoid with promising cancer chemopreventive properties. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying anticancer activity of UA is needed for further development as a clinically useful chemopreventive agent. Here, we found that both endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagy were induced by UA in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Surprisingly, ER stress was identified as an effect rather than a cause of UA-induced autophagy. Autophagy-dependent ER stress protected the cells from UA-induced apoptosis through EIF2AK3-mediated upregulation of MCL1. Activation of MAPK1/3 but not inhibition of MTOR pathway contributed to UA-induced cytoprotective autophagy in MCF-7 cells. Our findings uncovered a novel cellular mechanism involved in the anticancer activity of UA, and also provided a useful model to study biological significance and mechanisms of autophagy-mediated ER stress.
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379
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Zhu Z, Qian Z, Yan Z, Zhao C, Wang H, Ying G. A phase I pharmacokinetic study of ursolic acid nanoliposomes in healthy volunteers and patients with advanced solid tumors. Int J Nanomedicine 2013; 8:129-36. [PMID: 23319864 PMCID: PMC3540956 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s38271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ursolic acid is a promising anticancer agent. The current study aims to evaluate the single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics (PK) as well as the safety of ursolic acid nanoliposomes (UANL) in healthy volunteers and in patients with advanced solid tumors. METHODS Twenty-four healthy volunteers in the single-dose PK study were divided into three different groups, which received 37, 74, and 98 mg/m(2) of UANL. Eight patients in the multiple-dose PK study were administered with 74 mg/m(2) of UANL daily for 14 days. The UA plasma concentrations were determined using ultra-performance liquid chromatograph-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS The plasma concentration profiles of all subjects were characterized by a biexponential decline after infusion. The mean peak plasma concentration (C(max)) increased linearly as a function of the dose (r = 0.999). The mean area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) from 0 to 16 hours also increased proportionally with dose escalation (r = 0.998). However, the clearance was constant over the specific dose interval. In the multiple-dose PK study, the trough and average concentrations remained low. The mean AUC, half-life, C(max), time to C(max), and the volume of distribution on the first day were similar to those on the last day. All subjects tolerated the treatments well. Most UANL-associated adverse events varied from mild to moderate. CONCLUSIONS UANL exhibits relatively linear PK behavior with dose levels from 37 mg/m(2) to 98 mg/m(2). No drug accumulation was observed with repeated doses of UANL. The intravenous infusion of UANL was well tolerated by healthy volunteers and patients with advanced tumors.
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380
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Kaewthawee N, Brimson S. The effects of ursolic acid on cytokine production via the MAPK pathways in leukemic T-cells. EXCLI JOURNAL 2013. [PMID: 26417220 DOI: 10.17877/de290r-10658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpenoid carboxylic acid that is found in plants and herbal products. It is one of the chemopreventive agents, which can suppress cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. UA possesses various biological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and hepatoprotective activity. We investigated the effect of UA on cytokine production via the MAPK pathways in Jurkat leukemic T-cells, showing that UA inhibited cell growth and proliferation of Jurkat cells, as well as suppressing PMA/PHA induced IL-2 and TNF-α production in a concentration and time dependent manner. The inhibition of IL-2 and TNF-α production by UA involved the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, but not the extracellular-signal regulated protein kinase (ERK) pathway. Future utilization of UA as a chemopreventive or therapeutic agent may provide an alternative option for leukemia treatments.
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de Oliveira Eloy J, Saraiva J, de Albuquerque S, Marchetti JM. Solid dispersion of ursolic acid in Gelucire 50/13: a strategy to enhance drug release and trypanocidal activity. AAPS PharmSciTech 2012; 13:1436-45. [PMID: 23070562 PMCID: PMC3513474 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-012-9868-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid dispersions (SDs) are an approach to increasing the water solubility and bioavailability of lipophilic drugs such as ursolic acid (UA), a triterpenoid with trypanocidal activity. In this work, Gelucire 50/13, a surfactant compound with permeability-enhancing properties, and silicon dioxide, a drying adjuvant, were employed to produce SDs with UA. SDs and physical mixtures (PMs) in different drug/carrier ratios were characterized and compared using differential scanning calorimetry, hot stage microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), particle size, water solubility values, and dissolution profiles. Moreover, LLC-MK2 fibroblast cytotoxicity and trypanocidal activity evaluation were performed to determine the potential of SD as a strategy to improve UA efficacy against Chagas disease. The results demonstrated the conversion of UA from the crystalline to the amorphous state through XRD. FTIR experiments provided evidence of intermolecular interactions among the drug and carriers through carbonyl peak broadening in the SDs. These findings helped explain the enhancement of water solubility from 75.98 μg/mL in PMs to 293.43 μg/mL in SDs and the faster drug release into aqueous media compared with pure UA or PMs, which was maintained after 6 months at room temperature. Importantly, improved SD dissolution was accompanied by higher UA activity against trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi, but not against mammalian fibroblasts, enhancing the potential of UA for Chagas disease treatment.
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Zeller I, Wiedemann D, Schwaiger S, Stelzmüller M, Kreutmayer S, Leberfing O, Stuppner H, Bernhard D. Inhibition of cell surface expression of endothelial adhesion molecules by ursolic acid prevents intimal hyperplasia of venous bypass grafts in rats. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2012; 42:878-84. [PMID: 22551965 PMCID: PMC3523388 DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezs128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Despite rapid progress in surgical techniques, there is still a significant lack of surgery-supportive pharmacological treatments. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that ursolic acid (UA) may prevent intimal hyperplasia of venous bypass grafts. METHODS The hypothesis was tested by means of primary cell isolation and culture followed by real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting analyses, as well as an in vivo rat model for intimal hyperplasia of venous bypass grafts and immunohistochemistry and histochemistry. RESULTS The local application of UA significantly inhibited intimal hyperplasia in vivo (intimal thickness control: 25 µm, UA group: 18 µM-8 weeks after surgery). The UA treatment of grafts significantly resulted in reduced endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) expression, reduced infiltration of the grafts vessel wall by CD45-positive cells and increased smooth muscle cell (SMC) death. In in vitro condition, it could be shown that UA inhibits VCAM-1 expression downstream of NFκB and is likely to interfere with VCAM-1 protein synthesis in endothelial cells. Quantification of cell death in vascular smooth muscle cells treated with UA indicated that UA is a potent inducer of SMC apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that UA-mediated inhibition of endothelial VCAM-1 expression reduces the infiltration of venous bypass grafts by CD45-positive cells and inhibits intimal hyperplasia. Apoptosis induction in SMCs may be another method in which UA reduces intimal thickening. UA may constitute a surgery-supportive pharmacon that reduces intimal hyperplasia of vein grafts.
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Innocente AM, Silva GNS, Cruz LN, Moraes MS, Nakabashi M, Sonnet P, Gosmann G, Garcia CRS, Gnoatto SCB. Synthesis and antiplasmodial activity of betulinic acid and ursolic acid analogues. Molecules 2012; 17:12003-14. [PMID: 23085651 PMCID: PMC6268073 DOI: 10.3390/molecules171012003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 09/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
More than 40% of the World population is at risk of contracting malaria, which affects primarily poor populations in tropical and subtropical areas. Antimalarial pharmacotherapy has utilised plant-derived products such as quinine and artemisinin as well as their derivatives. However, worldwide use of these antimalarials has caused the spread of resistant parasites, resulting in increased malaria morbidity and mortality. Considering that the literature has demonstrated the antimalarial potential of triterpenes, specially betulinic acid (1) and ursolic acid (2), this study investigated the antimalarial activity against P. falciparum chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 strain of some new derivatives of 1 and 2 with modifications at C-3 and C-28. The antiplasmodial study employed flow cytometry and spectrofluorimetric analyses using YOYO-1, dihydroethidium and Fluo4/AM for staining. Among the six analogues obtained, compounds 1c and 2c showed excellent activity (IC₅₀ = 220 and 175 nM, respectively) while 1a and b demonstrated good activity (IC₅₀ = 4 and 5 μM, respectively). After cytotoxicity evaluation against HEK293T cells, 1a was not toxic, while 1c and 2c showed IC₅₀ of 4 μM and a selectivity index (SI) value of 18 and 23, respectively. Moreover, compound 2c, which presents the best antiplasmodial activity, is involved in the calcium-regulated pathway(s).
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Liu W, Tan X, Shu L, Sun H, Song J, Jin P, Yu S, Sun M, Jia X. Ursolic acid inhibits cigarette smoke extract-induced human bronchial epithelial cell injury and prevents development of lung cancer. Molecules 2012; 17:9104-15. [PMID: 22858837 PMCID: PMC6268827 DOI: 10.3390/molecules17089104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cigarette smoking is the main cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer. The present study was aimed to explore the chemopreventive effect of ursolic acid (UA) on these diseases. In the CSE treated normal human bronchial epithelial cell model, UA alleviated cytotoxicity caused by CSE, recovered the intracellular redox balance, and relieved the stimulation of external deleterious factors as well. UA mitigated CSE-induced DNA damage through the Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) pathway. Moreover, UA inhibited lung cancer development in the model established by A549 cells in nude mice in vivo. For the first time, our results indicate that UA could be developed as a potential lung cancer chemopreventive agent.
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385
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Bag P, Chattopadhyay D, Mukherjee H, Ojha D, Mandal N, Sarkar MC, Chatterjee T, Das G, Chakraborti S. Anti-herpes virus activities of bioactive fraction and isolated pure constituent of Mallotus peltatus: an ethnomedicine from Andaman Islands. Virol J 2012; 9:98. [PMID: 22624581 PMCID: PMC3430555 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-9-98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viral infections, particularly the infections caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV), represent one of the most serious public health concerns globally because of their devastating impact. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiviral potential of methanolic crude extract of an ethnomedicine Mallotus peltatus, its active fraction and pure compound, against HSV-1 F and HSV-2 G. RESULT The cytotoxicity (CC(50), the concentration of 50% cellular toxicity), antiviral effective concentration (EC(50), the concentration required to achieve 50% protection against virus-induced cytopathic effect), plaque reduction and the selectivity index (SI, the ratio of CC(50) and EC(50)) was determined. Results showed that the crude methanolic extract of M. peltatus possessed weak anti-HSV activity. In contrast, the active fraction A and isolated ursolic acid from fraction A exhibited potent antiherpesvirus activity against both HSV-1 (EC(50)= 7.8 and 5.5 μg/ml; SI = 22.3 and 20) and HSV-2 (EC(50)= 8.2 and 5.8 μg/ml, and SI = 21.2 and 18.97). The fraction A and isolated ursolic acid (10 μg/ml) inhibited plaque formation of HSV-1 and HSV-2 at more than 80% levels, with a dose dependent antiviral activity, compared to acyclovir. The time response study revealed that the anti-HSV activity of fraction A and isolated ursolic acid is highest at 2-5 h post-infection. Moreover, the time kinetics study by indirect immunofluorescence assay showed a characteristic pattern of small foci of single fluorescent cells in fraction A- treated virus infected cells at 2 h and 4 h post-infection, suggesting drug inhibited viral dissemination. Further, the PCR study with infected cell cultures treated with fraction A and isolated ursolic acid at various time intervals, failed to show amplification at 48-72 h, like acyclovir treated HSV-infected cells. Moreover, fraction A or isolated ursolic acid showed no interaction in combination with acyclovir. CONCLUSION This study revealed that bioactive fraction A and isolated ursolic acid of M. peltatus has good anti-HSV activity, probably by inhibiting the early stage of multiplication (post-infection of 0-5 h), with SI value of 20, suggesting its potential use as anti-HSV agents.
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dos Santos FM, de Souza MG, Crotti AEM, Martins CHG, Ambrósio SR, Veneziani RCS, e Silva MLA, Cunha WR. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of extracts of Tibouchina candolleana (melastomataceae), isolated compounds and semi-synthetic derivatives against endodontic bacteria. Braz J Microbiol 2012; 43:793-9. [PMID: 24031892 PMCID: PMC3768843 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822012000200045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This work describes the phytochemical study of the extracts from aerial parts of Tibouchina candolleana as well as the evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of extracts, isolated compounds, and semi-synthetic derivatives of ursolic acid against endodontic bacteria. HRGC analysis of the n-hexane extract of T. candolleana allowed identification of β-amyrin, α-amyrin, and β-sitosterol as major constituents. The triterpenes ursolic acid and oleanolic acid were isolated from the methylene chloride extract and identified. In addition, the flavonoids luteolin and genistein were isolated from the ethanol extract and identified. The antimicrobial activity was investigated via determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) using the broth microdilution method. Amongst the isolated compounds, ursolic acid was the most effective against the selected endodontic bacteria. As for the semi-synthetic ursolic acid derivatives, only the methyl ester derivative potentiated the activity against Bacteroides fragilis.
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387
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Gao N, Cheng S, Budhraja A, Gao Z, Chen J, Liu EH, Huang C, Chen D, Yang Z, Liu Q, Li P, Shi X, Zhang Z. Ursolic acid induces apoptosis in human leukaemia cells and exhibits anti-leukaemic activity in nude mice through the PKB pathway. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 165:1813-1826. [PMID: 21950524 PMCID: PMC3372832 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01684.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Ursolic acid (UA) has been extensively used as an anti-leukaemic agent in traditional Chinese medicine. In the present study, we investigated the ability of UA to induce apoptosis in human leukaemia cells in relation to its effects on caspase activation, Mcl-1 down-regulation and perturbations in stress-induced signalling pathways such as PKB and JNK. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Leukaemia cells were treated with UA after which apoptosis, caspase activation, PKB and JNK signalling pathways were evaluated. The anti-tumour activity of UA was evaluated using xenograft mouse model. KEY RESULTS UA induced apoptosis in human leukaemia cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner; this was associated with caspase activation, down-regulation of Mcl-1 and inactivation of PKB accompanied by activation of JNK. Enforced activation of PKB by a constitutively active PKB construct prevented UA-mediated JNK activation, Mcl-1 down-regulation, caspase activation and apoptosis. Conversely, UA lethality was potentiated by the PI3-kinase inhibitor LY294002. Interruption of the JNK pathway by pharmacological or genetic (e.g. siRNA) attenuated UA-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, UA-mediated inhibition of tumour growth in vivo was associated with induction of apoptosis, inactivation of PKB as well as activation of JNK. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Collectively, these findings suggest a hierarchical model of UA-induced apoptosis in human leukaemia cells in which UA induces PKB inactivation, leading to JNK activation and culminating in Mcl-1 down-regulation, caspase activation and apoptosis. These findings indicate that interruption of PKB/JNK pathways may represent a novel therapeutic strategy in haematological malignancies.
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Annan K, Jackson N, Dickson RA, Sam GH, Komlaga G. Acaricidal effect of an isolate from Hoslundia opposita vahl against Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae). Pharmacognosy Res 2011; 3:185-8. [PMID: 22022167 PMCID: PMC3193619 DOI: 10.4103/0974-8490.85004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hoslundia opposita Vahl. (Lamiaceae), a common local shrub in Ghana, is traditionally known not only for its pharmacological benefits but also for its insecticidal properties. Its acaricidal property, however, has not been investigated. OBJECTIVE To test the acaricidal effects of the crude extract and fractions of H. opposita leaves as well as to isolate and characterize the acaricidal principles. MATERIALS AND METHODS The crude methanolic extract, pet. ether, ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions of the leaves of H. opposita were tested against the larvae of the cattle tick, Amblyomma variegatum, using the Larval Packet Test. A bioassay-guided isolation was carried out to identify the acaricidal principle obtained from the ethyl acetate fraction. RESULTS The active principle was characterised as ursolic acid, a triterpene previously isolated from the leaves of the same plant. The extract and fractions were less potent than the control, malathion (LC(50) 1.14 × 10(-4) mg/ml). Among the plant samples however the crude methanolic extract exhibited the highest effect against the larvae (LC(50) 5.74 × 10(-2) mg/ml), followed by the ethyl acetate fraction (LC(50) 8.10 × 10(-2) mg/ml). Ursolic acid, pet. ether and aqueous fractions however showed weak acaricidal effects with LC(50) values of 1.13 mg/ml, 8.96 × 10(-1) mg/ml and 1.44 mg/ml, respectively. CONCLUSION Ursolic acid was not as potent as the crude methanolic extract and the ethyl acetate fraction from which it was isolated. The overall acaricidal effect of H. opposita may have been due to synergy with other principles having acaricidal properties.
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Qiang Z, Ye Z, Hauck C, Murphy PA, McCoy JA, Widrlechner MP, Reddy MB, Hendrich S. Permeability of rosmarinic acid in Prunella vulgaris and ursolic acid in Salvia officinalis extracts across Caco-2 cell monolayers. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 137:1107-12. [PMID: 21798330 PMCID: PMC3202029 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Rosmarinic acid (RA), a caffeic acid-related compound found in high concentrations in Prunella vulgaris (self-heal), and ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid concentrated in Salvia officinalis (sage), have been traditionally used to treat inflammation in the mouth, and may also be beneficial for gastrointestinal health in general. AIM OF THE STUDY To investigate the permeabilities of RA and UA as pure compounds and in Prunella vulgaris and Salvia officinalis ethanol extracts across human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell monolayers. MATERIALS AND METHODS The permeabilities and phase II biotransformation of RA and UA as pure compounds and in herbal extracts were compared using Caco-2 cells with HPLC detection. RESULTS The apparent permeability coefficient (P(app)) for RA and RA in Prunella vulgaris extracts was 0.2 ± 0.05 × 10(-6)cm/s, significantly increased to 0.9 ± 0.2 × 10(-6)cm/s after β-glucuronidase/sulfatase treatment. P(app) for UA and UA in Salvia officinalis extract was 2.7 ± 0.3 × 10(-6)cm/s and 2.3 ± 0.5 × 10(-6)cm/s before and after β-glucuronidase/sulfatase treatment, respectively. Neither compound was affected in permeability by the herbal extract matrix. CONCLUSION RA and UA in herbal extracts had similar uptake as that found using the pure compounds, which may simplify the prediction of compound efficacy, but the apparent lack of intestinal glucuronidation/sulfation of UA is likely to further enhance the bioavailability of that compound compared with RA.
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Xia EQ, Wang BW, Xu XR, Zhu L, Song Y, Li HB. Microwave-assisted extraction of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid from Ligustrum lucidum Ait. Int J Mol Sci 2011; 12:5319-29. [PMID: 21954361 PMCID: PMC3179168 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12085319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oleanolic acid and ursolic acid are the main active components in fruit of Ligustrum lucidum Ait, and possess anticancer, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and antiprotozoal activities. In this study, microwave-assisted extraction of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid from Ligustrum lucidum was investigated with HPLC-photodiode array detection. Effects of several experimental parameters, such as type and concentration of extraction solvent, ratio of liquid to material, microwave power, extraction temperature and microwave time, on the extraction efficiencies of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid from Ligustrum lucidum were evaluated. The influence of experimental parameters on the extraction efficiency of ursolic acid was more significant than that of oleanolic acid (p < 0.05). The optimal extraction conditions were 80% ethanol aqueous solution, the ratio of material to liquid was 1:15, and extraction for 30 min at 70 °C under microwave irradiation of 500 W. Under optimal conditions, the yields of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid were 4.4 ± 0.20 mg/g and 5.8 ± 0.15 mg/g, respectively. The results obtained are helpful for the full utilization of Ligustrum lucidum, which also indicated that microwave-assisted extraction is a very useful method for extraction of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid from plant materials.
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Liu Y, Huang X, Li Y, Li C, Hu X, Xue C, Meng F, Zhou P. Ursolic acid promotes robust tolerance to cardiac allografts in mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2011; 164:282-8. [PMID: 21391985 PMCID: PMC3087921 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04333.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor (NF)-κB is an important molecule in T cell activation. Our previous work has found that T cell-restricted NF-κB super-repressor (IκBαΔN-Tg) mice, expressing an inhibitor of NF-κB restricted to the T cell compartment, can permanently accept fully allogeneic cardiac grafts and secondary donor skin grafts. In this study, we explore if transient NF-κB inhibition by a small molecular inhibitor could induce permanent graft survival. Ursolic acid, a small molecular compound, dose-dependently inhibited T cell receptor (TCR)-triggered NF-κB nuclear translocation and T cell activation in vitro. In vivo, ursolic acid monotherapy prolonged significantly the survival of cardiac allograft in mice. Assisted with donor-specific transfusion (DST) on day 0, ursolic acid promoted 84·6% of first cardiac grafts to survive for more than 150 days. While the mice with long-term surviving grafts (LTS) did not reject the second donor strain hearts for more than 100 days without any treatment, they all promptly rejected the third-party strain hearts within 14 days. Interestingly, this protocol did not result in an increased proportion of CD4(+) CD25(+) forkhead box P3(+) regulatory T cells in splenocytes. That adoptive transfer experiments also did not support regulation was the main mechanism in this model. Splenocytes from LTS showed reduced alloreactivity to donor antigen. However, depletion of CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T cells did not alter the donor-reactivity of LTS splenocytes. These data suggest that depletion of donor-reactive T cells may play an important role in this protocol.
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392
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Peixoto JA, Andrade e Silva ML, Crotti AEM, Cassio Sola Veneziani R, Gimenez VMM, Januário AH, Groppo M, Magalhães LG, dos Santos FF, Albuquerque S, da Silva Filho AA, Cunha WR. Antileishmanial activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of Miconia langsdorffii, isolated compounds, and semi-synthetic derivatives. Molecules 2011; 16:1825-33. [PMID: 21343887 PMCID: PMC6259650 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16021825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Revised: 02/14/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The in vitro activity of the crude hydroalcoholic extract of the aerial parts of Miconia langsdorffii Cogn. was evaluated against the promastigote forms of L. amazonensis, the causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans. The bioassay-guided fractionation of this extract led to identification of the triterpenes ursolic acid and oleanolic acid as the major compounds in the fraction that displayed the highest activity. Several ursolic acid semi-synthetic derivatives were prepared, to find out whether more active compounds could be obtained. Among these ursolic acid-derived substances, the C-28 methyl ester derivative exhibited the best antileishmanial activity.
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393
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Kim E, Sy-Cordero A, Graf TN, Brantley SJ, Paine MF, Oberlies NH. Isolation and identification of intestinal CYP3A inhibitors from cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) using human intestinal microsomes. PLANTA MEDICA 2011; 77:265-70. [PMID: 20717876 PMCID: PMC3023844 DOI: 10.1055/s-0030-1250259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Cranberry juice is used routinely, especially among women and the elderly, to prevent and treat urinary tract infections. These individuals are likely to be taking medications concomitantly with cranberry juice, leading to concern about potential drug-dietary substance interactions, particularly in the intestine, which, along with the liver, is rich in expression of the prominent drug metabolizing enzyme, cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). Using a systematic in vitro-in vivo approach, a cranberry juice product was identified recently that elicited a pharmacokinetic interaction with the CYP3A probe substrate midazolam in 16 healthy volunteers. Relative to water, cranberry juice inhibited intestinal first-pass midazolam metabolism. In vitro studies were initiated to identify potential enteric CYP3A inhibitors from cranberry via a bioactivity-directed fractionation approach involving dried whole cranberry [Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. (Ericaceae)], midazolam, and human intestinal microsomes (HIM). Three triterpenes (maslinic acid, corosolic acid, and ursolic acid) were isolated. The inhibitory potency (IC(50)) of maslinic acid, corosolic acid, and ursolic acid was 7.4, 8.8, and < 10 µM, respectively, using HIM as the enzyme source and 2.8, 4.3, and < 10 µM, respectively, using recombinant CYP3A4 as the enzyme source. These in vitro inhibitory potencies, which are within the range of those reported for two CYP3A inhibitory components in grapefruit juice, suggest that these triterpenes may have contributed to the midazolam-cranberry juice interaction observed in the clinical study.
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394
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Schwaiger S, Zeller I, Pölzelbauer P, Frotschnig S, Laufer G, Messner B, Pieri V, Stuppner H, Bernhard D. Identification and pharmacological characterization of the anti-inflammatory principal of the leaves of dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L.). JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 133:704-9. [PMID: 21040770 PMCID: PMC3029555 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 10/21/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY The performed investigations aimed on the identification of the anti-inflammatory principal of extracts of leaves of Sambucus ebulus L. (dwarf elder) in order to rationalize the traditional use of this plant for the treatment of chronically inflammatory diseases. MATERIALS AND METHODS Dwarf elder leaf extract was subjected to activity guided fractionation using inhibition of TNFα induced expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) on the surface of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) as monitoring tool (positive control: parthenolide 10μM, VCAM-1 expression (% of control): 5.35±0.38%). RESULTS Bio-guided isolation resulted in identification of ursolic acid as anti-inflammatory principal. Besides its inhibitory effects against TNFα induced expression of VCAM-1 (IC(50) 6.25 μM), ursolic acid inhibits also TNFα induced expression of ICAM-1 (IC(50) value between 3.13 and 6.25 μM) (positive control: parthenolide 10 μM, ICAM-1 expression (% of control): 38.89±16.6%). Toxic effects of ursolic acid on HUVECs can be drastically reduced using an enriched extract instead of the pure compound. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest an additional mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of ursolic acid by demonstrating its ability to inhibit TNFα-stimulated expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 and support the traditional use of extracts and preparations of Sambucus ebulus L., rich in ursolic acid, for the treatment of chronically inflammatory processes.
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395
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Zhou C, Zhang Y, Sheng Y, Zhao D, Lv S, Hu Y, Tao J. Herbaceous peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.) as an alternative source of oleanolic and ursolic acids. Int J Mol Sci 2011; 12:655-67. [PMID: 21340006 PMCID: PMC3039972 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12010655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Revised: 01/06/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Oleanolic acid (OA) and ursolic acid (UA) have been proven to possess many biological activities, and much attention is focused on the search for plants which are rich in OA and UA. In this report, the OA and UA accumulation characteristics were investigated in 47 cultivars of Chinese herbaceous peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.) and were followed in three cultivars over different developmental stages as measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). OA and UA levels in leaves and stems demonstrated an overall upward trend from May 1 to September 15 except for UA in the leaves of "Hong Feng". The maximum values of OA and UA in leaves of "Yangfei Chu Yu", "Fen Zhu Pan" and "Hong Feng" were 852.98, 575.60, 290.48 μg/g FW and 924.94, 827.36, 432.67 μg/g FW, respectively. The maximum values of OA and UA in stems of "Yangfei Chu Yu", "Fen Zhu Pan" and "Hong Feng" were 359.28, 90.49, 43.90 μg/g FW and 326.86, 82.25, 56.63 μg/g FW, respectively. OA and UA contents in leaves of 47 different herbaceous peony cultivars ranged from 66.73-618.12 and 36.23-665.14 μg/g FW, respectively, with average values of 171.62 and 227.57 μg/g FW, respectively. The results suggested that the aboveground parts of herbaceous peony may be used as an alternative source of OA and UA for medicinal purposes in addition to its ornamental purposes.
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396
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Zhou C, Sheng Y, Zhao D, Wang Z, Tao J. Variation of oleanolic and ursolic acid in the flesh of persimmon fruit among different cultivars. Molecules 2010; 15:6580-7. [PMID: 20877245 PMCID: PMC6257790 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15096580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Revised: 08/25/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oleanolic acid (OA) and ursolic acid (UA) are important bioactive components in many plants, including persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.). The present work was carried out to determine OA and UA contents in the flesh of persimmon fruit from 32 cultivars, including 23 astringent and 9 non-astringent ones, by applying high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection. Both OA and UA were present in all of the investigated cultivars, except for three, 'Hiratanenashi', 'Ribenhongshi' and 'Matsumotowase'. The OA content ranged from traces to 88.57 μg/g FW, and that of UA were between traces and 27.64 μg/g FW.
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397
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Tian S, Shi Y, Yu Q, Upur H. Determination of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid contents in Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. by HPLC method. Pharmacogn Mag 2010; 6:116-9. [PMID: 20668577 PMCID: PMC2900058 DOI: 10.4103/0973-1296.62898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2010] [Revised: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A simple, precise, rapid and accurate, binary-phase high performance liquid chromatographic method has been developed for the determination of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid contents in the Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. with short run time. Chromatographic separation is achieved by using HPLC system consisting of a Shimadzu LC-6AD and Kromasil C(18) column (150 x 4.6 mm, 10 mum, with pre-column), the mobile phase consists of methanol and 0.03 M phosphate buffer (pH = 3, 90:10). Detection wavelength is 214 nm. The speed of flow is 0.5 ml/min. The specimen handing quantity is 10 mul. The oleanolic acid's linearity range is 0.4 ~ 1.2 mg/ml (r = 0.9996). The ursolic acid's linearity range is 0.6 ~ 1.8 mg/ml (r = 0.9996), and the linear relationship is accurate. The average recovery (n = 6) of oleanolic acid is 99.5% (RSD = 1.19%) and ursolic acid is 102.3% (RSD = 1.25%). The content of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid in Ziziphora clinopodioides are 0.76 mg/g and 1.176 mg/g, respectively. The developed HPLC method can therefore be applied to both in vitro studies of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid formulations as well as drug estimation in biological samples.
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398
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Li R, Quan P, Liu DF, Wei FD, Zhang Q, Xu QW. The influence of cosolvent on the complexation of HP-beta-cyclodextrins with oleanolic acid and ursolic acid. AAPS PharmSciTech 2009; 10:1137-44. [PMID: 19834815 PMCID: PMC2799583 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-009-9317-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The present work was aimed at the influence of ethanol on the complex formation of hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD) with oleanolic acid (OA) and ursolic acid (UA), two insoluble isomeric triterpenic acids. Phase solubility studies were carried out to evaluate the solubilizing power of HP-beta-CD, in association with ethanol, toward OA and UA. A mathematical model was applied to explain and predict the solubility of OA and UA influenced by HP-beta-CD and ethanol. The solid complexes were prepared by evaporating the filtrate of samples which was prepared in different complexing media. The solubility of OA is much higher than that of UA in all the tested aqueous solutions. The solubility of OA and UA can be increased over 900 and 200 times, respectively, by forming complex with HP-beta-CD. Ethanol (0.5%, v/v) can help the formation of OA-HP-beta-CD complex, but is harmful to the formation of UA-HP-beta-CD complex. Increasing solubility in water can be achieved by adding ethanol into the complexing media, but the concentration of ethanol should be optimized. The ring E of the chemical compounds has a great influence on the complexing process.
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399
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Shan JZ, Xuan YY, Zheng S, Dong Q, Zhang SZ. Ursolic acid inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of HT-29 colon cancer cells by inhibiting the EGFR/MAPK pathway. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2009; 10:668-74. [PMID: 19735099 PMCID: PMC2738836 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b0920149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of ursolic acid on the proliferation and apoptosis of human HT-29 colon cancer cells. METHODS 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and flow cytometry assays were performed to evaluate the effects of ursolic acid on the growth and apoptosis of HT-29 cells. Western blot analysis was applied to investigate the inhibitory effects of ursolic acid on the phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and the activity of B cell leukemia-2 (Bcl-2), B cell leukemia-xL (Bcl-xL), caspase-3, and caspase-9. RESULTS Ursolic acid inhibited the growth of HT-29 cells in dose- and time-dependent manners. The median inhibition concentration (IC50) values for 24, 48, and 72 h treatment were 26, 20, and 18 micromol/L, respectively. The apoptotic rates of 10, 20, and 40 micromol/L ursolic acid treatments for 24 h were 5.74%, 14.49%, and 33.05%, and for 48 h were 9%, 21.39%, and 40.49%, respectively. Ursolic acid suppressed the phosphorylation of EGFR, ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, and JNK, which is well correlated with its growth inhibitory effect. 10, 20, and 40 micromol/L ursolic acid significantly inhibited the proliferation of EGF-stimulated HT-29 cells (P<0.05). Cell proliferation was most significantly inhibited when treated with 10 and 20 micromol/L ursolic acid combined with 200 nmol/L AG 1478 or 10 micromol/L U0126 (P<0.01). Besides, it also down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and activated caspase-3 and caspase-9. CONCLUSION Ursolic acid induces apoptosis in HT-29 cells by suppressing the EGFR/MAPK pathway, suggesting that it may be a potent agent for the treatment of colorectal cancer.
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Silva MGV, Vieira IGP, Mendes FNP, Albuquerque IL, dos Santos RN, Silva FO, Morais SM. Variation of ursolic acid content in eight Ocimum species from northeastern Brazil. Molecules 2008; 13:2482-7. [PMID: 18923339 PMCID: PMC6245192 DOI: 10.3390/molecules13102482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 09/16/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ursolic acid is a very important compound due to its biological potential as an anti-inflammatory, trypanocidal, antirheumatic, antiviral, antioxidant and antitumoral agent. This study presents the HPLC analysis of ursolic acid (UA) content in eight different Ocimum species: O. americanum L., O. basilicum L, O. basilicum var purpurascens Benth, O. basilicum var. minimum L, O. gratissimum L, O. micranthum Willd, O. selloi Benth. and O. tenuiflorum L. grown in Northeastern Brazil. In these Ocimum species, UA was detected in different yields, with O. tenuiflorum showing the highest content (2.02%). This yield is very significant when compared with other sources of UA.
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