[Membrane cholesterol oxidation effects on synaptic vesicle cycle in frog (RANA ridibunda) motor nerve terminals]

In experiments on frog (Rana ridibunda) neuromuscular junction the influence of cholesterol oxidation on the presynaptic vesicular cycle was investigated. Application of cholesterol oxidase (1 u. a.) during 1/2 hour led to the oxidation of - 0.007 mg cholesterol per 1 g tissue and reduced stability of lipid rafts in the nerve terminals. Using electrophysiological techniques it was shown that the cholesterol oxidation decreases the evoked neurotransmitter release. In experiments with fluorescent FM-dyes the depression of the synaptic vesicles exo-endocytosis and the dispersion of synaptic vesicles clusters were revealed. Comparative analysis of electrophysiological and optical data, as well as experiments with water soluble quencher of FM-dye indicated the possibility of some neurotransmitter release by "kiss-and-run" pathway, when short-lived fusion pore is formed. It was concluded that cholesterol oxidation inhibit evoked exocytosis, and also synaptic vesicle delivery from reserve pool to cites of exocytosis probably by break of the clusterization. Perhaps the synaptic vesicles of recycling pool release the neurotransmitter using the kiss-and-run mechanism.

[Teriflunomide is a new peroral disease-modifying drug for multiple sclerosis (a review)]

Teriflunomide is a once-daily, orally administered, disease-modifying drug. The review presents the data concerning the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics as well as results of clinical studies. Teriflunomide has received the regulatory approval in the USA, Argentina, Australia, South Korea, Chile and EU. The submission of a regulatory dossier is performed in Russia.

[Neuroimmunology: theoretical and clinical aspects]

The aspects of neuroimmune interactions (during cerebral ischemia and stroke--experimental and clinical data, demyelinating process in patients with multiple sclerosis,secondary immunodeficiency) are discussed in this article. Literature overview and authors' experience are presented as well.

[Cholesterol and lipid rafts in the biological membranes. Role in the release, reception and ion channel functions]

Traditionally, membrane protein molecules that form ion channels, transporters, pumps, signaling complexes, machine of exo- and endocytosis is assigned as the main players of the cellular processes. Recently, the findings that indicate the importance of lipids in regulating of cell physiology are accumulated. Attention is attracting to cholesterol molecule because it can directly interact with different proteins and together with sphingolipids to form membrane microdomains (lipid rafts). Many receptors (for neurotransmitters, hormones, growth factors), signaling proteins and proteins involved in vesicular and ion transport are concentrated in the lipid rafts. Changes in stability and structure of rafts cause dramatic cellular dysfunction. In the review the current views on lipid variants that make up the biological membrane, the distribution of cholesterol, the organization and the formation of lipid rafts and caveolae are described. Accent is made on researches that focus on the significance of lipid rafts in the extra- and intracellular signaling, neurotransmitters release, receptor and ion channels function at the excitable cells.

[Experimental and modelling investigation of the mechanism of synaptic vesicles recycling]

Under the condition of microelectrode recording and fluorescence microscopy with dye FM 1-43 the research of exo- endocytosis of synaptic vesicle in motor nerve terminals (NT) of frog cutaneous pectoris and white mice diaphragm muscles during high frequency stimulation (20 imp/s) was carried out. A mathematical modeling allowed us to conclude that the obtained experimental data can be explained in the following framework. Three pools of synaptic vesicles are involved in neurotransmitter release in the frog motor NT. Recovery of these pools is provided by endocytosis of two types: fast endocytosis with limited capacity and slow endocytosis. Fast-reconstructing vesicles refills the mobilization pool and slow endocytosis recovers the reserve pool. Our modelling investigation has revealed in frog NT independent recruiting of reserve and mobilization pools to the neurotransmitter secretion, i.e. this pools work concurrently. Experimental data, obtained on mice preparations, are well described with the framework of two-pools model including single type of endocytosis (fast endocytosis).

[Mechanism of the slow inotropic response of the mouse atrium mediated by the beta2-adrenoreceptor]

The abundant beta2-adrenoceptors (AR) expression was revealed in the mouse atrial cardiomyocytes, albeit its function is poorly understood. Recently we revealed the slow developing (for 20-40 min) positive inotropic effect in the mouse atrium which was induced by the specific agonist of the beta2-adrenoceptors (5 mkM fenoterol) and the task of this study involved investigation of the found effect. It was shown that stimulation of beta2-AR is enough for rapid triggering of up-regulation of two signalling pathways that have the opposite influence on the contraction force. On one hand, activation of the adenylate cyclase--protein kinase A cascade occurs leading to increasing of intracellular Ca2+ concentration and amplitude of contraction; on the other hand, activation of the NO-synthase and enhance of NO production occurs which prevents the potentiating of the contraction force. During the first 15-20 minutes, superposition of these activation effects was revealed, which prevented the contraction strength increasing. Then the positive inotropic effects occurred due to the decreasing of NO production. It was shown that L-type Ca-channels and ryanodine receptors were the key targets incorporated in the beta2 adrenoreceptors signalling puzzle.

Increased non-quantal release of acetylcholine after inhibition of endocytosis by methyl-β-cyclodextrin: the role of vesicular acetylcholine transporter

We investigated the role of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter in the mechanism of non-quantal (non-vesicular) secretion of neurotransmitter in the neuromuscular synapse of the rat diaphragm muscle. Non-quantal secretion was estimated electrophysiologically by the amplitude of end-plate hyperpolarization after inhibition of cholinesterase and nicotinic receptors (H-effect) or measured by the optical detection of acetylcholine in the bathing solution. It was shown that 1 mM methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MCD) reduced both endocytosis and, to much lesser extent, exocytosis of synaptic vesicles (SV) thereby increasing non-quantal secretion of acetylcholine with a concurrent decrease in axoplasm pH. During high-frequency stimulation of the motor nerve, that substantially increases vesicles exocytosis, the non-quantal secretion was further enhanced if the endocytosis of SV was blocked by MCD. In contrast, non-quantal secretion of acetylcholine did not increase when the MCD-treated neuromuscular preparations were superfused with either vesamicol, an inhibitor of vesicular transporter of acetylcholine, or sodium propionate, which decreases intracellular pH. These results suggest that the proton-dependent, vesamicol-sensitive vesicular transporters of acetylcholine, which become inserted into the presynaptic membrane during SV exocytosis and removed during endocytotic recycling of SV, play the major role in the process of non-quantal secretion of neurotransmitter.

Ethanol sensitizes the nervous system of Caenorhabditis elegans nematode to heat stress

Ethanol sensitizes the nervous system of C. elegans to heat stress, which manifested in exacerbation of locomotion disturbances induced by exposure to constant temperature 36°C. Adaptation of C. elegans to high temperature by heat shock (1 h at 32°C and 1 h at 18°C) or two-hour exposure at 30°C resulted considerably reduced sensitivity of the nervous system to the negative effects of ethanol under conditions of heat stress.

[Investigation vesicle cycle in nerve formations in somatic muscle of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris]

Luminous spots with a diameter of 1-2 microm, which are clusters of "synaptic buds", were revealed in the muscular wall of the earthworm using endocytotic fluorescent dyes FM1-43, FM2-10 and FM4-64. Application of the membrane probe Dil that is capable of being subjected to anterograde axonal transport to abdominal ganglia of the nervous chain, and subsequent (in a day) staining of nerve formations by endocytotic dye FM4-64 showed complete imposition of the emission data of the dyes that fluoresce in different parts of the spectrum. Using fluorescent marker DiBAC4(3) showed an increased emission of neural elements with increasing concentration of K+ in the extracellular environment. Application of FM2-10 showed that the higher concentration of K+ in solution, and hence the depolarization of the nerve cells, the faster the upload of the dye, and vice versa, the process slowed down in the absence of K+ in the medium. The seizure and removal of FM2-10 were blocked in calcium-free solutions in the presence of Ca2+ buffers, BABTA or BABTA-AM, but only after a preliminary 40 min incubation. The processes of exo- and endocytosis occurred in the clusters of synaptic "buds" and were preserved in conditions of "rest". This vesicle cycle depends on membrane potential and concentration of K+ and Ca2+, and, it is very likely that the calcium sensor operates on the principle "all or nothing".

[Lipids in the process of synaptic vesicle exo- and endocytosis]

The phenomenon of synaptic transmission is based on the processes of synaptic vesicle exo- and endocytosis carried out with complex protein-dependent mechanisms. The SNARE-complex forming proteins (synaptobrevin, syntaxin, SNAP-25), synaptotagmin, Munc13, Munc18, NSF, alpha-SNAP are involved in exocytosis, while the synaptic vesicle endocytosis is mediated by another protein (clathrin, AP-2, epsin, endophilin, amphiphysin, dynamin, synaptojanin, Hsc70). In recent years, data on critical role of various lipids in exo- and encocytosis are collected. Most interesting results are received about significance of the cholesterol, phosphoinositides, phosphatidic and polynonsaturated fat acids in the exo-endocytosis cycle. Participation of lipid rafts in synaptic vesicle recycling is discussed. In this article, the data of the last years, including the authors' own data about role of some lipids and lipid-modifying enzimes in processes of exo- and endocytosis are presented.

[The role of cholesterol in exo- and endocytosis of the synaptic vesicles at the frog motor nerve terminal]

In experiments on the frog neuro-muscular preparations using electrophysiological (two electrode fixing of potential) and optical (fluorescent endocytic dye FM1-43) methods, the value of surface cholestertol for exo-endocytic cycle of synaptic vesicles at the prolonged rhythmic activity (20 Hz--3 minutes) was investigated. It is shown that extraction of cholesterol from surface membranes by methyl-betta-cyclodextrin (1 mM MCD) leads to the expressed shifts in recycling of synaptic vesicles. Exocytosis of vesicles is decreased, and oppression of processes leading to restoration of the number of vesicles of ready releasable pool is observed. Cholesterol replacement from external membranes and membranes of recycling synaptic vesicles in addition to above described effects breaks processes of endocytosis and recycle of synaptic vesicles. Thus, in the processes of exocytosis, the key role is played by cholesterol of plasmatic membranes, and endocytosis critically depends on the amount of cholesterol in the membranes of synaptic vesicles.

The vesicle cycle in motor nerve endings of the mouse diaphragm

Experiments on the mouse diaphragm muscle using intracellular microelectrode recordings and fluorescence microscopy were performed to study the dynamics of transmitter secretion and synaptic vesicle recycling processes (the exocytosis-endocytosis cycle) in motor nerve endings (NE) during prolonged rhythmic stimulation (20 impulses/sec). During stimulation, there were triphasic changes in the amplitude of endplate potentials (EPP): an initial rapid reduction, followed by prolonged (1-2 min) stabilization of amplitude, i.e., a plateau, and then a further slow decrease. Restoration of EPP amplitude after stimulation for 3 min occurred over a period of several seconds. Loading of synaptic vesicles with the fluorescent endocytic stain FM1-43 showed that rhythmic stimulation led to a gradual (over 5-6 min) decrease in NE fluorescence, demonstrating exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Quantum analysis of the electrophysiological data and comparison of these data with results from fluorescence studies suggested that mouse NE have a high rate of endocytosis and reutilization of synaptic vesicles (the mean recycling time was about 50 sec), which may support the maintenance of reliable synaptic transmission during prolonged high-frequency activity. The sizes of the release-ready and recycling pools of synaptic vesicles were determined quantitatively. It is suggested that vesicle recycling in mouse NE occurs via a short, rapid pathway with incorporation into the recycling pool. Vesicles of the reserve pool are not used for transmitter secretion in the stimulation conditions used here.

[Ethical aspects of clinical trials in patients with multiple sclerosis]

The ethical aspects of clinical trials are reviewed. Clinical trials in the Russian Federation must be conducted in accordance with the Good Clinical Practice, guiding principles of the Helsinki Declaration and Russian laws. The article includes information concerning principles of patient's informed consent, regulatory requirements and guidelines for clinical trials in multiple sclerosis.

[Brain atrophy and neurological impairment in patients with multiple sclerosis]

An aim of the study was to investigate a relationship between global and local brain atrophy with neurological impairment (motor dysfunction) in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients with different levels of disease severity. Fifty five patients with definite MS (Mc Donald's criteria), aged 18-60 years, disease duration 1-30 years, and 25 healthy age-matched controls have been studied. Neurological assessment (Kurtzke and EDSS scales) was performed in the all patients. The patients were divided into 3 groups: EDSS<3.5 mild disability, EDSS 3.5-6.0 moderate disability, EDSS>6.0 severe disability. In MS patients, the global brain atrophy was accompanied by the local atrophy of subcortical structures (thalamus, basal ganglia) and cerebellum. The processes of cerebral grey matter total and local atrophy were not similar. The progression of MS, neurological impairment is accompanied by the cerebellum and lentiform nuclei atrophy. There was the decrease of brain parenchyma volume, nucleus caudate and cerebellar local atrophy in patients with moderate disability. The severe disability was correlated with the thalamic atrophy and marked basal ganglia and cerebellar atrophy. Thus, we can suppose that the thalamic atrophy is important for the development of severe motor dysfunctions in MS patients.

[Pathogenetic treatment of multiple sclerosis: the present and the future]

Treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) remains one of the most serious problems of modern medicine though a significant progress in understanding of disease pathogenesis has been achieved over the last years. Currently there are the ways of modifying the disease course that improve the remote prognosis. In this review, we present results of studies of drugs modifying the MS course which have been approved for MS treatment and those that are in the stage of clinical trials and expected to enlarge possibilities of MS treatment.

[Peculiarities of synaptic vesicle recycling in frog and mouse motor nerve terminals]

Using electrophysiology and fluorescence microscopy (dye FM1-43), comparative study of neurotransmitter secretion, synaptic vesicle exo-endocytosis, and recycling has been carried out in frog and mouse motor nerve terminals during a long strong stimulation (3 min; 20 imp/s). The obtained data have revealed three synaptic vesicle pools and two recycling ways existing on motor nerve terminals. The strong stimulation induced consecutive depletion of readily releasable, mobilized, and reserve vesicle pools of frog nerve terminals. The exocytosis rate exceeded the endocytosis rate; predominant was the slow synaptic vesicle recycling that replenished the reserve pool. In mouse nerve endings, vesicles of the readily releasable and mobilized pools were only exocytosed, the pools being replenished by fast recycling. At the same time, exo- and endocytosis occurred nearly in parallel and vesicles of the reserve pool did not participate in the neurotransmitter secretion. In is suggested that evolution of motor nerve terminals was directed to a decrease of the vesicle pool size, economic spending, and effective reuse of synaptic vesicles. This is achieved by an increase of endocytosis and recycling rates. These features can provide a long maintenance of a quite level of neurotransmitter secretion in nerve terminals of homoiothermal animals to preserve reliability of synaptic transmission during the high-frequency activity.

[Vesicle cycle in mouse diaphragm motor nerve terminals]

In our research on mouse diaphragm muscles the dynamic of neurotransmitter secretion and synaptic vesicles recycling (exo-endocytosis cycle) at the long-term rhythmic stimulation (20Hz) are explored using an intracellular microelectrode registration and a fluorescent microscopy. It have been shown, thate change of end plant potentials (EPP) amplitude at the rhythmic training occurs in three phases: initial transient decrease, long amplitude stabilization (1-2 min)--the plateau and secondary slow decrease. After 3 minute stimulations the EPP amplitude recovery observed during several seconds. Loading the synaptic vesicle by fluorescent endocytic dye FM 1-43 had shown that the rhythmic stimulation results to gradual (during 5-6 mines) fluorescence decrease in NT, indicating the synaptic vesicle exocytosis. The quantum analysis of the electrophysiological data and their comparison to the fluorescent researches date has allowed to assume, that mouse motor nerve terminals are characterized by high rate of endocytosis and fast synaptic vesicle reuse (average recycling time about 50 sec) that can provide effective maintenance of synaptic transmission at long high-frequency activity. Sizes of ready releasable and recycling synaptic vesicle pools are quantitatively determined. It is assumed, that vesicle recycling occurs on a short fast way to inclusion in recycling pool. So, in the stimulation protocol that were used the synaptic vesicles from reserve pool remain unused. Thus in our conditions recycling pool vesicles cycle repeatedly without reserve pool release.

[Clinical and radiological (PET, MRI) correlations depending on disease progression in patients with multiple sclerosis]

The aim of the study was to investigate the structural-functional changes in the cerebral gray matter (cortical and subcortical areas) of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) depending on the disease severity. One hundred and seven patients (107) with definite diagnosis of MS (Mc Donald's criteria), aged 16-60 years, illness duration 1-30 years, and 21 healthy age-matched controls have been studied. Neurological assessment including Kurtzke and EDSS scales (range 0-8) was performed in all the patients. The patients and controls underwent MRI with a 1,5 imager and PET using 18F-flurodeoxyglucose (FDG). A type of the disease course was determined as remitting in 63 patients, primarily-progressive in 8, remitting progressive in 6 and secondary-progressive in 30. To analyze pathogenesis of the disease progression, the patients were divided into 3 clinical groups: (1) remitting (RRMS, n=63); (2) progressive (PRMS) with EDSS < or =6 (n=34); 3) PRMS with EDSS >6 (n=11). Along with the progression of MS from RRMS to PRMS and increasing of EDSS, the rCMRglu reduction of the cerebral gray matter developed from the supplementary motor cortex of a dominant hemisphere to the marked global reduction of cerebral metabolic rate in the PRMS group (EDSS >6). In the PRMS group with EDSS56, there was functional reorganization of cortical and subcortical areas compensatorily developing with the disease progression. In the PRMS group with EDSS >6, the data obtained did not support the evidence for the regional compensatory increase of rCMRglu in the same brain areas. Decompensation of the functional cortical reorganization in the PRMS group with EDSS >6 correlated with diffuse brain atrophy as well as with atrophy of the gray matter of the regional basal ganglia, first of all of the thalamus.

[The intracellular calcium and mechanisms of endocytosis of synaptic vesicles at the frog nerve ending]

In the experiments on frog motor nerve endings of cutaneous pectoris muscle, made by extracellular recording of synaptic signals, it has been shown that the increase in intracellular calcium ion concentration in the nerve ending (by enhance of extracellular potassium ion concentration, or by addition of caffeine) leads to an increase in the miniature end-plate potential frequency, which is preserved over the whole period (about 10 min) of action of these substrates. The rhythmic stimulation of motor nerve (20 or 100 imp/s) quickly leads to a decrease in the end plate potentials amplitude. It has been shown by fluorescent microscopy with the use of endocytotic marker FM 1-43 that in the course of a short time exposition (5 min) in a high potassium solution (40 mM) or caffeine (5 mM), light spots appeared in the nerve ending. This shows that synaptic vesicles undergo intensive processes of endocytosis. During a longer exposition (30 min) no light spots were revealed, whereas the nerve ending width increased. This data allowed to propose that the process of endocytosis was blocked. In the presence of even lower concentrations of potassium ions and caffeine, and during a long rhythmic stimulation (20 or 100 imp/s) no blocking of endocytosis was revealed. It is concluded that high concentrations of intracellular calcium in the frog motor nerve ending leads to a reversible block of endocytosis, while exocytosis in synaptic vesicles is proceeding.

Reactive oxygen species contribute to the presynaptic action of extracellular ATP at the frog neuromuscular junction

During normal cell metabolism the production of intracellular ATP is associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which appear to be important signalling molecules. Both ATP and ROS can be released extracellularly by skeletal muscle during intense activity. Using voltage clamp recording combined with imaging and biochemical assay of ROS, we tested the hypothesis that at the neuromuscular junction extracellular ATP generates ROS to inhibit transmitter release from motor nerve endings. We found that ATP produced the presynaptic inhibitory action on multiquantal end-plate currents. The inhibitory action of ATP (but not that of adenosine) was significantly reduced by several antioxidants or extracellular catalase, which breaks down H2O2. Consistent with these data, the depressant effect of ATP was dramatically potentiated by the pro-oxidant Fe2+. Exogenous H2O2 reproduced the depressant effects of ATP and showed similar sensitivity to anti- and pro-oxidants. While NO also inhibited synaptic transmission, inhibitors of the NO-producing cascade did not prevent the depressant action of ATP. The ferrous oxidation in xylenol orange assay showed the increase of ROS production by ATP and 2-MeSADP but not by adenosine. Suramin, a non-selective antagonist of P2 receptors, and pertussis toxin prevented the action of ATP on ROS production. Likewise, imaging with the ROS-sensitive dye carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein revealed increased production of ROS in the muscle treated with ATP or ADP while UTP or adenosine had no effect. Thus, generation of ROS contributed to the ATP-mediated negative feedback mechanism controlling quantal secretion of ACh from the motor nerve endings.

[Analysis of living motor nerve ending of a frog by endocytotic fluorescent marker FM 1-43]

In our experiments on motor nerve endings of the frog cutaneous pectoris muscle, using fluorescent marker FM 1-43, the intensity and topography of endocytosis were investigated after the initiation of massive exocytosis of synaptic vesicles by increasing the extracellular potassium concentration. Using FM 1-43, fluorescent spots were shown to appear, looking as accumulations of synaptic vesicles in the active zone region. The forms and sizes of luminous spots and the distances between them were analysed. Considerable variations in brightness and total areas of fluorescent spots per a length unit in different regions of the nerve ending were revealed in addition to a proximal-distal gradient of these parameters along the nerve terminal. Peculiarities of topography and intensities of luminescence in the most terminal regions of the nerve ending are described. The obtained data are discussed in terms of the exo- and endocytosis cycle of synaptic vesicles in the active zone region, and from the point of view of the plasticity of the motor nerve ending and active zones. The factors involved in the transmitter release nonuniformity are analysed.

[Myelopid correction of immune deficiency in staffers exposed to lead materials at work]

Authors demonstrated that immune dysfunction of chronic lead intoxication is manifested in low number and changed subpopulations of immune cells, in alterations of spontaneous lymphocytes proliferation. "Myelopid" corrects the symptoms of immune dysfunction.

Disability in world leaders

Eur J Neurol 6:113 Copyright Lippincott Williams & Wilkins