Sharma K, Chen H, Rossi CT, Kothapalli SVVN, Oetgen M, Kim A, H. Negussie A, Woods D, J. Wood B, C. W. Kim P, S. Yarmolenko P. Boiling histotripsy lesion characterization on a clinical magnetic resonance imaging-guided high intensity focused ultrasound system

Purpose

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is a non-invasive therapeutic technique that can thermally ablate tumors. Boiling histotripsy (BH) is a HIFU approach that can emulsify tissue in a few milliseconds. Lesion volume and temperature effects for different BH sonication parameters are currently not well characterized. In this work, lesion volume, temperature distribution, and area of lethal thermal dose were characterized for varying BH sonication parameters in tissue-mimicking phantoms (TMP) and demonstrated in ex vivo tissues.

Methods

The following BH sonication parameters were varied using a clinical MR-HIFU system (Sonalleve V2, Philips, Vantaa, Finland): acoustic power, number of cycles/pulse, total sonication time, and pulse repetition frequency (PRF). A 3×3×3 pattern was sonicated inside TMP’s and ex vivo tissues. Post sonication, lesion volumes were quantified using 3D ultrasonography and temperature and thermal dose distributions were analyzed offline. Ex vivo tissues were sectioned and stained with H&E post sonication to assess tissue damage.

Results

Significant increase in lesion volume was observed while increasing the number of cycles/pulse and PRF. Other sonication parameters had no significant effect on lesion volume. Temperature full width at half maximum at the end of sonication increased significantly with all parameters except total sonication time. Positive correlation was also found between lethal thermal dose and lesion volume for all parameters except number of cycles/pulse. Gross pathology of ex vivo tissues post sonication displayed either completely or partially damaged tissue at the focal region. Surrounding tissues presented sharp boundaries, with little or no structural damage to adjacent critical structures such as bile duct and nerves.

Conclusion

Our characterization of effects of HIFU sonication parameters on the resulting lesion demonstrates the ability to control lesion morphologic and thermal characteristics with a clinical MR-HIFU system in TMP’s and ex vivo tissues. We demonstrate that this system can produce spatially precise lesions in both phantoms and ex vivo tissues. The results provide guidance on a preliminary set of BH sonication parameters for this system, with a potential to facilitate BH translation to the clinic.

Evaluation of a tissue-mimicking thermochromic phantom for radiofrequency ablation

PURPOSE

This work describes the characterization and evaluation of a tissue-mimicking thermochromic phantom (TMTCP) for direct visualization and quantitative determination of temperatures during radiofrequency ablation (RFA).

METHODS

TMTCP material was prepared using polyacrylamide gel and thermochromic ink that permanently changes color from white to magenta when heated. Color vs temperature calibration was generated in matlab by extracting RGB color values from digital photographs of phantom standards heated in a water bath at 25-75 °C. RGB and temperature values were plotted prior to curve fitting in mathematica using logistic functions of form f(t) = a + b/(1 + e((c(t-d)))), where a, b, c, and d are coefficients and t denotes temperature. To quantify temperatures based on TMTCP color, phantom samples were heated to temperatures blinded to the investigators, and two methods were evaluated: (1) visual comparison of sample color to the calibration series and (2) in silico analysis using the inverse of the logistic functions to convert sample photograph RGB values to absolute temperatures. For evaluation of TMTCP performance with RFA, temperatures in phantom samples and in a bovine liver were measured radially from an RF electrode during heating using fiber-optic temperature probes. Heating and cooling rates as well as the area under the temperature vs time curves were compared. Finally, temperature isotherms were generated computationally based on color change in bisected phantoms following RFA and compared to temperature probe measurements.

RESULTS

TMTCP heating resulted in incremental, permanent color changes between 40 and 64 °C. Visual and computational temperature estimation methods were accurate to within 1.4 and 1.9 °C between 48 and 67 °C, respectively. Temperature estimates were most accurate between 52 and 62 °C, resulting in differences from actual temperatures of 0.6 and 1.6 °C for visual and computational methods, respectively. Temperature measurements during RFA using fiber-optic probes matched closely with maximum temperatures predicted by color changes in the TMTCP. Heating rate and cooling rate, as well as the area under the temperature vs time curve were similar for TMTCP and ex vivo liver.

CONCLUSIONS

The TMTCP formulated for use with RFA can be used to provide quantitative temperature information in mild hyperthermic (40-45 °C), subablative (45-50 °C), and ablative (>50 °C) temperature ranges. Accurate visual or computational estimates of absolute temperatures and ablation zone geometry can be made with high spatial resolution based on TMTCP color. As such, the TMTCP can be used to assess RFA heating characteristics in a controlled, predictable environment.

Preclinical MRI-Guided Focused Ultrasound: A Review of Systems and Current Practices

Effective preclinical research is a vital component in the development of MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) and its translation to clinic. In this review, we seek to outline the challenges at hand for effective preclinical research, survey different solutions, and underline best practices. Furthermore, we summarize efforts to build and characterize dedicated preclinical MRgFUS equipment, including lab prototypes and available commercial products. Finally, we discuss constraints and considerations specific to using clinical MRgFUS equipment in preclinical research. Specifically, we examine additional hardware that has been used to adapt clinical MRgFUS equipment to better position, constrain, and image preclinical subjects, as well as software solutions that have been used to extend the potential and capabilities of clinical devices.

Thermochromic tissue-mimicking phantom for optimisation of thermal tumour ablation

Purpose The purpose of this study was to (1) develop a novel tissue-mimicking thermochromic (TMTC) phantom that permanently changes colour from white to magenta upon heating above ablative temperatures, and (2) assess its utility for specific applications in evaluating thermal therapy devices. Materials and methods Polyacrylamide gel mixed with thermochromic ink was custom made to produce a TMTC phantom that changes its colour upon heating above biological ablative temperatures (> 60 °C). The thermal properties of the phantom were characterised, and compared to those of human tissue. In addition, utility of this phantom as a tool for the assessment of laser and microwave thermal ablation was examined. Results The mass density, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity of the TMTC phantom were measured as 1033 ± 1.0 kg/m(3), 0.590 ± 0.015 W/m.K, and 0.145 ± 0.002 mm(2)/s, respectively, and found to be in agreement with reported values for human soft tissues. Heating the phantom with laser and microwave ablation devices produced clearly demarcated regions of permanent colour change geographically corresponding to regions with temperature elevations above 60 °C. Conclusion The TMTC phantom provides direct visualisation of ablation dynamics, including ablation volume and geometry as well as peak absolute temperatures within the treated region post-ablation. This phantom can be specifically tailored for different thermal therapy modalities, such as radiofrequency, laser, microwave, or therapeutic ultrasound ablation. Such modality-specific phantoms may enable better quality assurance, device characterisation, and ablation parameter optimisation, or optimise the study of dynamic heating parameters integral to drug device combination therapies relying upon heat.

A simple method for determining the coagulation threshold temperature of transparent tissue-mimicking thermal therapy gel phantoms: Validated by magnetic resonance imaging thermometry

PURPOSE

Tissue-mimicking thermal therapy phantoms that coagulate at specific temperatures are valuable tools for developing and evaluating treatment strategies related to thermal therapy. Here, the authors propose a simple and efficient method for determining the coagulation threshold temperature of transparent thermal therapy gel phantoms.

METHODS

The authors used a previously published gel phantom recipe with 2% (w/v) of bovine serum albumin as the temperature-sensitive protein. Using the programmable heating settings of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) machine, the authors heated 50 μl gel samples to various temperatures for 3 min and then imaged them using the BioRad Gel Doc system to determine the coagulation temperature using an opacity quantification method. The estimated coagulation temperatures were then validated for gel phantoms prepared with different pH levels using high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) heating and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) thermometry methods on a clinical MR-HIFU system.

RESULTS

The PCR heating method produced consistent and reproducible coagulation of gel samples in precise correlation with the set incubation temperatures. The resulting coagulation threshold temperatures for gel phantoms of varying pH levels were found to be 44.1 ± 0.1, 53.4 ± 0.9, and 60.3 ± 0.9 °C for pH levels of 4.25, 4.50, and 4.75, respectively. This corresponded well with the coagulation threshold temperatures determined by MR-thermometry, with coagulation defined as a 95% decrease in T2 relaxation time, which were estimated at 53.6 ± 1.9 and 62.9 ± 2.4 °C for a pH of 4.50 and 4.75, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The opacity quantification method provides a fast and reproducible estimate of the coagulation threshold temperature of transparent temperature-sensitive gel phantoms. The temperatures determined using this method were well within the range of temperatures estimated using MR-thermometry. Due to the specific heating capabilities of the PCR machine, and the robust determination of coagulation threshold temperatures based on the statistically significant increase in the opacity of gel samples, coagulation temperatures can be determined more precisely and with less variability compared to MRI-based methods.

Low-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Induces Reversal of Tumor-Induced T Cell Tolerance and Prevents Immune Escape

Immune responses against cancer cells are often hindered by immunosuppressive mechanisms that are developed in the tumor microenvironment. Induction of a hyporesponsive state in tumor Ag-specific T cells is one of the major events responsible for the inability of the adaptive immune system to mount an efficient antitumor response and frequently contributes to lessen the efficacy of immunotherapeutic approaches. Treatment of localized tumors by focused ultrasound (FUS) is a minimally invasive therapy that uses a range of input energy for in situ tumor ablation through the generation of thermal and cavitation effect. Using a murine B16 melanoma tumor model, we show that a variant of FUS that delivers a reduced level of energy at the focal point and generates mild mechanical and thermal stress in target cells has the ability to increase immunogenic presentation of tumor Ags, which results in reversal of tumor-induced T cell tolerance. Furthermore, we show that the combination of nonablative low-energy FUS with an ablative hypofractionated radiation therapy results in synergistic control of primary tumors and leads to a dramatic reduction in spontaneous pulmonary metastases while prolonging recurrence-free survival only in immunocompetent mice.

Cavernosal nerve functionality evaluation after magnetic resonance imaging-guided transurethral ultrasound treatment of the prostate

AIM: To evaluate the feasibility of using therapeutic ultrasound as an alternative treatment option for organ-confined prostate cancer.

METHODS: In this study, a trans-urethral therapeutic ultrasound applicator in combination with 3T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) guidance was used for real-time multi-planar MRI-based temperature monitoring and temperature feedback control of prostatic tissue thermal ablation in vivo. We evaluated the feasibility and safety of MRI-guided trans-urethral ultrasound to effectively and accurately ablate prostate tissue while minimizing the damage to surrounding tissues in eight canine prostates. MRI was used to plan sonications, monitor temperature changes during therapy, and to evaluate treatment outcome. Real-time temperature and thermal dose maps were calculated using the proton resonance frequency shift technique and were displayed as two-dimensional color-coded overlays on top of the anatomical images. After ultrasound treatment, an evaluation of the integrity of cavernosal nerves was performed during prostatectomy with a nerve stimulator that measured tumescence response quantitatively and indicated intact cavernous nerve functionality. Planned sonication volumes were visually correlated to MRI ablation volumes and corresponding histo-pathological sections after prostatectomy.

RESULTS: A total of 16 sonications were performed in 8 canines. MR images acquired before ultrasound treatment were used to localize the prostate and to prescribe sonication targets in all canines. Temperature elevations corresponded within 1 degree of the targeted sonication angle, as well as with the width and length of the active transducer elements. The ultrasound treatment procedures were automatically interrupted when the temperature in the target zone reached 56 °C. In all canines erectile responses were evaluated with a cavernous nerve stimulator post-treatment and showed a tumescence response after stimulation with an electric current. These results indicated intact cavernous nerve functionality. In all specimens, regions of thermal ablation were limited to areas within the prostate capsule and no damage was observed in periprostatic tissues. Additionally, a visual analysis of the ablation zones on contrast-enhanced MR images acquired post ultrasound treatment correlated excellent with the ablation zones on thermal dose maps. All of the ablation zones received a consensus score of 3 (excellent) for the location and size of the correlation between the histologic ablation zone and MRI based ablation zone. During the prostatectomy and histologic examination, no damage was noted in the bladder or rectum.

CONCLUSION: Trans-urethral ultrasound treatment of the prostate with MRI guidance has potential to safely, reliably, and accurately ablate prostatic regions, while minimizing the morbidities associated with conventional whole-gland resection or therapy.

Correcting heat-induced chemical shift distortions in proton resonance frequency-shift thermometry

PURPOSE

To reconstruct proton resonance frequency-shift temperature maps free of chemical shift distortions.

THEORY AND METHODS

Tissue heating created by thermal therapies such as focused ultrasound surgery results in a change in proton resonance frequency that causes geometric distortions in the image and calculated temperature maps, in the same manner as other chemical shift and off-resonance distortions if left uncorrected. We propose an online-compatible algorithm to correct these distortions in 2DFT and echo-planar imaging acquisitions, which is based on a k-space signal model that accounts for proton resonance frequency change-induced phase shifts both up to and during the readout. The method was evaluated with simulations, gel phantoms, and in vivo temperature maps from brain, soft tissue tumor, and uterine fibroid focused ultrasound surgery treatments.

RESULTS

Without chemical shift correction, peak temperature and thermal dose measurements were spatially offset by approximately 1 mm in vivo. Spatial shifts increased as readout bandwidth decreased, as shown by up to 4-fold greater temperature hot spot asymmetry in uncorrected temperature maps. In most cases, the computation times to correct maps at peak heat were less than 10 ms, without parallelization.

CONCLUSION

Heat-induced proton resonance frequency changes create chemical shift distortions in temperature maps resulting from MR-guided focused ultrasound surgery ablations, but the distortions can be corrected using an online-compatible algorithm. Magn Reson Med 76:172-182, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Magnetic Resonance-Guided Drug Delivery

The use of clinical imaging modalities for the guidance of targeted drug delivery systems, known as image-guided drug delivery (IGDD), has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing antitumor efficacy. MR imaging is particularly well suited for IGDD applications because of its ability to acquire images and quantitative measurements with high spatiotemporal resolution. The goal of IGDD strategies is to improve treatment outcomes by facilitating planning, real-time guidance, and personalization of pharmacologic interventions. This article reviews basic principles of targeted drug delivery and highlights the current status, emerging applications, and future paradigms of MR-guided drug delivery.

Low intensity focused ultrasound (LOFU) modulates unfolded protein response and sensitizes prostate cancer to 17AAG

The hypoxic tumor microenvironment generates oxidative Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress, resulting in protein misfolding and unfolded protein response (UPR). UPR induces several molecular chaperones including heat-shock protein 90 (HSP90), which corrects protein misfolding and improves survival of cancer cells and resistance to tumoricidal therapy although prolonged activation of UPR induces cell death. The HSP90 inhibitor, 17AAG, has shown promise against various solid tumors, including prostate cancer (PC). However, therapeutic doses of 17AAG elicit systemic toxicity. In this manuscript, we describe a new paradigm where the combination therapy of a non-ablative and non-invasive low energy focused ultrasound (LOFU) and a non-toxic, low dose 17AAG causes synthetic lethality and significant tumoricidal effects in mouse and human PC xenografts. LOFU induces ER stress and UPR in tumor cells without inducing cell death. Treatment with a non-toxic dose of 17AAG further increased ER stress in LOFU treated PC and switch UPR from a cytoprotective to an apoptotic response in tumors resulting significant induction of apoptosis and tumor growth retardation. These observations suggest that LOFU-induced ER stress makes the ultrasound-treated tumors more susceptible to chemotherapeutic agents, such as 17AAG. Thus, a novel therapy of LOFU-induced chemosensitization may be designed for locally advanced and recurrent tumors.

Quantitative evaluation of internal marks made using MRgFUS as seen on MRI, CT, US, and digital color images - a pilot study

This pilot study compared the detectability of internal thermal marks produced with MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) on MRI, computed tomography (CT), ultrasonography (US), and color images from digital scanning. Internal marks made using MRgFUS could potentially guide surgical, biopsy or radiotherapy procedures. New Zealand White rabbits (n = 6) thigh muscle were marked using a Philips MRgFUS system. Before and after sonications, rabbits were imaged using T1- and T2-weighted MRI. Then rabbits were sacrificed and imaging was performed using CT and US. After surgical excision specimens were scanned for color conspicuity analysis. Images were read by a radiologist and quantitative analysis of signal intensity was calculated for marks and normal muscle. Of a total of 19 excised marks, approximately 79%, 63%, and 62% were visible on MRI, CT, and US, respectively. The average maximum temperature elevation in the marks during MRgFUS was 39.7 ± 10.1 °C, and average dose diameter (i.e., the diameter of the area that achieved a thermal dose greater than 240 cumulative equivalent minutes at 43 °C) of the mark at the focal plane was 7.3 ± 2.1 mm. On MRI the average normalized signal intensities were significantly higher in marks compared to normal muscle (p < 0.05). On CT, the marked regions were approximately 10 HU lower than normal muscle (p < 0.05). The results demonstrate that MRgFUS can be used to create internal marks that are visible on MRI, CT and US.

Reduction of peak acoustic pressure and shaping of heated region by use of multifoci sonications in MR-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound mediated mild hyperthermia

PURPOSE

Ablative hyperthermia (>55 °C) has been used as a definitive treatment for accessible solid tumors not amenable to surgery, whereas mild hyperthermia (40-45 °C) has been shown effective as an adjuvant for both radiotherapy and chemotherapy. An optimal mild hyperthermia treatment is spatially accurate, with precise and homogeneous heating limited to the target region while also limiting the likelihood of unwanted thermal or mechanical bioeffects (tissue damage, vascular shutoff). Magnetic resonance imaging-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound (MR-HIFU) can noninvasively heat solid tumors under image-guidance. In a mild hyperthermia setting, a sonication approach utilizing multiple concurrent foci may provide the benefit of reducing acoustic pressure in the focal region (leading to reduced or no mechanical effects), while providing better control over the heating. The objective of this study was to design, implement, and characterize a multifoci sonication approach in combination with a mild hyperthermia heating algorithm, and compare it to the more conventional method of electronically sweeping a single focus.

METHODS

Simulations (acoustic and thermal) and measurements (acoustic, with needle hydrophone) were performed. In addition, heating performance of multifoci and single focus sonications was compared using a clinical MR-HIFU platform in a phantom (target = 4-16 mm), in normal rabbit thigh muscle (target = 8 mm), and in a Vx2 tumor (target = 8 mm). A binary control algorithm was used for real-time mild hyperthermia feedback control (target range = 40.5-41 °C). Data were analyzed for peak acoustic pressure and intensity, heating energy efficiency, temperature accuracy (mean), homogeneity of heating (standard deviation [SD], T10 and T90), diameter and length of the heated region, and thermal dose (CEM(43)).

RESULTS

Compared to the single focus approach, multifoci sonications showed significantly lower (67% reduction) peak acoustic pressures in simulations and hydrophone measurements. In a rabbit Vx2 tumor, both single focus and multifoci heating approaches were accurate (mean = 40.82±0.12 °C [single] and 40.70±0.09 °C [multi]) and precise (standard deviation = 0.65±0.05 °C [single] and 0.64±0.04 °C [multi]), producing homogeneous heating (T(10-90) = 1.62 °C [single] and 1.41 °C [multi]). Heated regions were significantly shorter in the beam path direction (35% reduction, p < 0.05, Tukey) for multifoci sonications, i.e., resulting in an aspect ratio closer to one. Energy efficiency was lower for the multifoci approach. Similar results were achieved in phantom and rabbit muscle heating experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

A multifoci sonication approach was combined with a mild hyperthermia heating algorithm, and implemented on a clinical MR-HIFU platform. This approach resulted in accurate and precise heating within the targeted region with significantly lower acoustic pressures and spatially more confined heating in the beam path direction compared to the single focus sonication method.The reduction in acoustic pressure and improvement in spatial control suggest that multifoci heating is a useful tool in mild hyperthermia applications for clinical oncology.

Characterization of a multi-element clinical HIFU system using acoustic holography and nonlinear modeling

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is a treatment modality that relies on the delivery of acoustic energy to remote tissue sites to induce thermal and/or mechanical tissue ablation. To ensure the safety and efficacy of this medical technology, standard approaches are needed for accurately characterizing the acoustic pressures generated by clinical ultrasound sources under operating conditions. Characterization of HIFU fields is complicated by nonlinear wave propagation and the complexity of phased-array transducers. Previous work has described aspects of an approach that combines measurements and modeling, and here we demonstrate this approach for a clinical phased-array transducer. First, low amplitude hydrophone measurements were performed in water over a scan plane between the array and the focus. Second, these measurements were used to holographically reconstruct the surface vibrations of the transducer and to set a boundary condition for a 3-D acoustic propagation model. Finally, nonlinear simulations of the acoustic field were carried out over a range of source power levels. Simulation results were compared with pressure waveforms measured directly by hydrophone at both low and high power levels, demonstrating that details of the acoustic field, including shock formation, are quantitatively predicted.