Salvage logging in the montane ash eucalypt forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria and its potential impacts on biodiversity

The two major forms of disturbance in the montane ash eucalypt forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria (southeastern Australia) are clearfell logging and unplanned wildfires. Since the 1930s wildfire has been followed by intensive and extensive salvage-logging operations, which may proceed for many years after a wildfire has occurred. Although applied widely, the potential effects of salvage logging on native flora and fauna have been poorly studied. Our data indicate that the abundance of large trees with hollows is significantly reduced in forests subject to salvage harvesting. This has implications for thepersistence of an array of such cavity-using vertebrates as the endangered arboreal marsupial, Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelidues leadbeateri). Salvage logging also reduces the prevalence of multiaged montane ash forests--places that typically support the highest diversity of arboreal marsupials and forest birds. Limited research has been conducted on the effects of salvage logging on plants; thus, we constructed hypotheses about potential impacts for further testing based on known responses to clearfell logging and key life history attributes. We predict many species, such as vegetatively resprouting tree ferns, will decline, as they do after clearfelling. We also suggest that seed regenerators, which typically regenerate well after fire or conventional clearfelling, will decline after salvage logging because the stimulation for germination (fire) takes place prior to mechanical disturbance (logging). Understoryplant communities in salvage-logged areas will be dominated by a smaller suite of species, and those that are wind dispersed, have viable soil-stored seed remaining after salvage logging, or have deep rhizomes are likely to be advantaged. We recommend the following improvements to salvage-logging policies that may better incorporate conservation needs in Victorian montane ash forests: (1) exemption of salvage logging from some areas (e.g., old-growth stands and places subject to only partial stand damage); (2) increased retention of biological legacies on burned areas through variations in the intensity of salvage logging; and (3) reduction in the levels of physical disturbance on salvage-logged areas, especially through limited seedbed preparation and mechanical disturbance.

Salvage logging, ecosystem processes, and biodiversity conservation

We summarize the documented and potential impacts of salvage logging--a form of logging that removes trees and other biological material from sites after natural disturbance. Such operations may reduce or eliminate biological legacies, modify rare postdisturbance habitats, influence populations, alter community composition, impair natural vegetation recovery, facilitate the colonization of invasive species, alter soil properties and nutrient levels, increase erosion, modify hydrological regimes and aquatic ecosystems, and alter patterns of landscape heterogeneity These impacts can be assigned to three broad and interrelated effects: (1) altered stand structural complexity; (2) altered ecosystem processes and functions; and (3) altered populations of species and community composition. Some impacts may be different from or additional to the effects of traditional logging that is not preceded by a large natural disturbance because the conditions before, during, and after salvage logging may differ from those that characterize traditional timber harvesting. The potential impacts of salvage logging often have been overlooked, partly because the processes of ecosystem recovery after natural disturbance are still poorly understood and partly because potential cumulative effects of natural and human disturbance have not been well documented. Ecologically informed policies regarding salvage logging are needed prior to major natural disturbances so that when they occur ad hoc and crisis-mode decision making can be avoided. These policies should lead to salvage-exemption zones and limits on the amounts of disturbance-derived biological legacies (e.g., burned trees, logs) that are removed where salvage logging takes place. Finally, we believe new terminology is needed. The word salvage implies that something is being saved or recovered, whereas from an ecological perspective this is rarely the case.

The effects of habitat fragmentation via forestry plantation establishment on spatial genotypic structure in the small marsupial carnivore, Antechinus agilis

Dispersal is an important influence on species' distributions, patch colonization and population persistence in fragmented habitat. We studied the impacts of habitat fragmentation resulting from establishment of an exotic pine plantation on dispersal of the marsupial carnivore, Antechinus agilis. We applied spatial analyses of individual multilocus microsatellite genotypes and mitochondrial haplotypes to study patterns of gene flow in fragmented habitat and natural habitat 'control' areas, and how this is affected by the spatial dispersion of habitat patches, the presence of corridors and a 'mainland' source of migrants. Spatial analysis of molecular variance and partial Mantel tests confirmed the absence of cryptic barriers to gene flow in continuous habitat, which if present would confound the comparison of genetic structures in fragmented vs. unfragmented habitats. Spatial genotypic structure suggested that although dispersal was male-biased in both habitat types, fragmentation restricted dispersal of males more than that of females and the degree of restriction of male dispersal was dependent on the geographical isolation of the patch. The scale of positive genotypic structure in fragmented habitat was restricted to the two closest patches for females and the three closest patches for males. Our results provide evidence for significantly increased gene flow through habitat corridors relative to that across the matrix and for significantly lower gene flow between 'mainland' unfragmented habitat and habitat patches relative to that within either habitat type, suggesting a behavioural barrier to crossing habitat interfaces.

The effects of habitat fragmentation on the social kin structure and mating system of the agile antechinus, Antechinus agilis

Habitat fragmentation is one of the major contributors to the loss of biodiversity worldwide. However, relatively little is known about its more immediate impacts on within-patch population processes such as social structure and mating systems, whose alteration may play an important role in extinction risk. We investigated the impacts of habitat fragmentation due to the establishment of an exotic softwood plantation on the social kin structure and breeding system of the Australian marsupial carnivore, Antechinus agilis. Restricted dispersal by males in fragmented habitat resulted in elevated relatedness among potential mates in populations in fragments, potentially increasing the risk of inbreeding. Antechinus agilis nests communally in tree hollows; these nests are important points for social contact between males and females in the mating season. In response to elevated relatedness among potential mates in fragmented habitat, A. agilis significantly avoided sharing nests with opposite-sex relatives in large fragment sites (but not in small ones, possibly due to limited nest locations and small population sizes). Because opposite-sex individuals shared nests randomly with respect to relatedness in unfragmented habitat, we interpreted the phenomenon in fragmented habitat as a precursor to inbreeding avoidance via mate choice. Despite evidence that female A. agilis at high inbreeding risk selected relatively unrelated mates, there was no overall increased avoidance of related mates by females in fragmented habitats compared to unfragmented habitats. Simulations indicated that only dispersal, and not nonrandom mating, contributed to inbreeding avoidance in either habitat context. However, habitat fragmentation did influence the mating system in that the degree of multiple paternity was reduced due to the reduction in population sizes and population connectivity. This, in turn, reduced the number of males available to females in the breeding season. This suggests that in addition to the obvious impacts of reduced recruitment, patch recolonization and increased genetic drift, the isolation of populations in habitat patches may cause changes in breeding behaviour that contribute to the negative impacts of habitat fragmentation.

The life history of Pseudocheirus occidentalis (Pseudocheiridae) in the jarrah forest of south-western Australia

Life-history attributes are described for the threatened ngwayir or western ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus occidentalis) in inland jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest east of Manjimup, south-western Australia. Data on 81 individuals were collected over 18 months. There was no sexual dimorphism and body size was similar to that found in other P. occidentalis populations, but larger than the closely related P. peregrinus in eastern Australia. Breeding at Chariup was more strongly seasonal than that of coastal populations, with 77% of births in May–June and the remainder in October–November. All neonates were singletons except for one instance of non-viable twins. No females bred twice in the same year. The growth rate of the head length of pouch young (<5 months of age) was 0.245–0.362 mm day–1 and curvilinear toward an asymptote thereafter. Temporal variations in body condition, coat condition and ectoparasites were significant. Mortality was highly seasonal (84% of deaths were April–September) and predominantly caused by predation, mainly by fox (Vulpes vulpes) and cat (Felis catus). More effective and strategic control of introduced predators prior to and during autumn/winter, could therefore improve the viability of jarrah forest populations. Nutrition appears to influence many of the life-history traits of P. occidentalis. Nutrition also may partly explain the differences in size, life history and conservation status between P. occidentalis and P. peregrinus.

A comparison of survey methods for arboreal possums in jarrah forest, Western Australia

Comparative trials of different survey methods were conducted in the southern jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest to determine the most efficient means of detecting koomal (common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula hypoleucus) and ngwayir (western ringtail possum, Pseudocheirus occidentalis). In particular, we examined different trapping and spotlighting methods and compared these with scat surveys. Six different trapping methods (derived by combining three bait types and two trap positions) were compared at six sites. Significantly fewer koomal were caught on ‘universal’ bait (i.e. peanut butter, rolled oats and sardines) than on flour-based baits using rose oil or Eucalyptus oil as lures. Significantly more individuals of both possum species were caught in arboreal traps than in ground traps (P < 0.001 in both cases). Recapture rates of koomal were high, whereas ngwayir were rarely retrapped. There were no detection differences between six different spotlighting methods (derived by combining three spotlight intensities with two filter colours) for koomal. Significantly more ngwayir were detected using 50-W or 100-W lights than 20-W lights (P = 0.01). There were no significant differences in the detection rates for ngwayir using red or white light. There were, however, significant observer differences in the number of possums of both species detected (koomal, P = 0.025; ngwayir, P = 0.004). Spotlighting detected, on average, only 4.9% of the koomal ‘known to be alive’ by trapping. However, spotlighting with a 50-W or 100-W spotlight detected more ngwayir than did trapping. Koomal abundance measures derived from scat surveys were not related to trapping or spotlight abundance estimates. For ngwayir, however, scat counts were strongly related to spotlight counts and there were no significant observer differences for the former. We conclude that koomal are more effectively surveyed using arboreal trapping with rose or Eucalyptus lures. Ngwayir are best surveyed using scat surveys or 50-W spotlights.

Effects of trap position, trap history, microhabitat and season on capture probabilities of small mammals in a wet eucalypt forest

In this study, we use data drawn from a series of trapping events on four 0.5-ha trapping grids surveyed in the wet eucalypt forests of central Victoria, south-eastern Australia, to identify relationships between capture probabilities and several factors of interest for three species of small mammals that are common throughout the forests of this region: the agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis), the dusky antechinus (Antechinus swainsonii) and the bush rat (Rattus fuscipes). The design of our study – four regular trapping grids – generated spatio-temporal data with binary responses and many covariates. We used powerful and relatively new statistical methodology to deal with the spatio-temporal dependence patterns in the data – analytical problems that are common in trapping data such as these modelled here. Although A. agilis, A. swainsonii and R. fuscipes are among the best studied mammals in Australia, our data analysis produced new perspectives on their probability of being captured. In particular, we quantified how capture probability is affected by trap position within a trapping grid, day of capture in a sequence of trapping days, history of trap occupancy over time by different species and sexes of those species, time of the year or season, and microhabitat attributes. Our insights are discussed in terms of their consequences for trapping protocols that might be applied in the field.

The life history of Trichosurus vulpecula hypoleucus (Phalangeridae) in the jarrah forest of south-western Australia

The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is noted for its morphological, biological and ecological variability across its range. Despite having suffered substantial population declines since European settlement, relatively little has been published on the south-western Australian subspecies, the koomal (T. v. hypoleucus). This study reports morphological, reproductive and general life-history data from an 18-month study of a population in the southern jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest at Chariup (part of Perup), near Manjimup, in south-western Australia. As one of the smallest subspecies, adult males of T. v. hypoleucus averaged 1616 g and females averaged 1470 g. Sexual dimorphism also occurred with head length and pes length, but not tail length. A single autumn breeding season occurred in both 2002 and 2003, in which all adult females bred and produced a single young between February and May. The onset of autumn births was associated with the end of the summer drought. Unlike many other Trichosurus populations, no spring breeding pulse or ‘double-breeding’ events were observed. At least 83% of pouch young survived to pouch emergence. The growth rate of offspring was initially linear, but became curvilinear and approached an asymptote after ~5 months. Most females bred for the first time when they were 1 year old. On the basis of testis size, males also matured at 1 year old. The body condition of adult males, but not adult females, changed significantly over time and followed an apparently seasonal pattern in which their condition was poorest in winter and best in summer. While many of the life-history traits of the Chariup population were similar to those of other south-western Australian populations of T. v. hypoleucus, the most striking variations included age at maturity, extent of spring breeding pulse and female fecundity. Further comparisons with conspecifics elsewhere in Australia and New Zealand also highlight the variability exhibited by T. vulpecula across its range. Some aspects of the biology of T. v. hypoleucus were particularly similar to those observed for T. v. arnhemensis in northern Australia.

Patch use by the greater glider (Petauroides volans) in a fragmented forest ecosystem. II. Characteristics of den trees and preliminary data on den-use patterns

This paper presents the results of a study of the use of den trees by the greater glider (Petauroides volans) in five patches of remnant eucalypt forest embedded within an extensive radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantation near Tumut in south-eastern Australia. Radio-tracking was used to identify 171 den trees occupied by 40 animals over 948 animal-tracking days between September 1997 and September 1998. All radio-tracked P. volans used multiple den trees. Males used significantly more den trees than females and a greater proportion of these were used for single visits. Males also used fewer new den trees over the study period in the smaller patches, although they still used more than females. In the larger patches, males and females used similar numbers of den trees. Commonly used den trees tended to be situated in (or close to) core areas of an individual’s home range. Den tree sharing, either concurrently or independently, was predominantly between adult males and females, or between adults and their young. Trees most likely to be used by more than one individual had the same characteristics as trees that had the highest probability of use per se – that is, they were of large ‘average size’.

Sound recording of bird vocalisations in forests. I. Relationships between bird vocalisations and point interval counts of bird numbers - a case study in statistical modeling

Morning vocal activity data for birds were collected using automatic sound recorders at 165 sites in fragmented forests at Tumut in south-eastern Australia. A model was developed to describe the statistical properties of the vocal activity data and study the relationship between the number of 'elements' (or notes) broadcast by birds and the number of birds recorded by human observers. We discuss the practical issues of finding a model where variance heterogeneity and skewness is a feature of the data, while the context of the problem required that multiplicative relationships be preserved. A satisfactory fit to our vocal activity data was obtained by using a Gamma distribution.For most groups of birds, the observed relationships between vocal activity and the number of birds recorded by human point counts were weak but statistically significant.Our analysis suggests that these data provide limited useful information about vocal activity per bird. Automatic sound-recording data may be informative for drawing inferences about temporal patterns in vocal activity but do not seem useful as a method for estimating the abundance of birds. A significant relationship was identified between the number of species vocalising, as measured by sound recorders, and the number of species observed by point count method. However, the relationship was far from isometric and there were many more species detected by the sound recorders than by human observers.Results from analyses of vocal activity data gathered at Tumut were confirmed by additional data obtained in a subsequent, small calibration study in the Namadgi National Park in the Australian Capital Territory.

Patch use by the greater glider (Petauroides volans) in a fragmented forest ecosystem. III. Night-time use of trees

Night-time use of feed trees by 40 radio-collared individuals of the greater glider (Petauroides volans) was recorded within five remnant patches of eucalypt forest near Tumut in south-eastern Australia. Radio-collared animals were observed making 663 night-time visits to 433 trees. For these observations, we recorded the number of visits by an animal to each tree, the number of different animals using each tree, the characteristics of trees that animals used, and the category of activity or behaviour displayed by animals (classified as feeding, perching, and moving). We found no evidence of a significant difference in patterns of behaviour between male and female P. volans in their night-time use of trees within remnant patches, regardless of patch size or population density. There were few records of animals (4%) from the radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantation that surrounded the eucalypt remnants, although 20 observations were made of P. volans feeding on the young male cones and buds of this introduced tree species. There was evidence of preference for feeding in ribbon gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), mountain gum (E. dalrympleana) and narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata), with 72% of feeding observations of P. volans coming from these three tree species. Animals were generally solitary and spent most of the night feeding and perching in the upper canopy. Most trees were used by a single individual, with 96% of observations being of a single animal in a tree. The limited number of cases of sharing and co-use of trees were generally between an adult male and adult female (assumed mates), and females and their young. The probability that a tree was used increased with the average size of a tree (a composite measure of diameter, height and crown features) until approaching an asymptote of 1.0, i.e. all large trees were used. The number of visits a tree received from P. volans also was positively related to the measure of its size.

Sound recording of bird vocalisations in forests. II. Longitudinal profiles in vocal activity

As early morning bird vocalisation is a major feature of many bird communities, longitudinal profiles of vocal activity data, collected using sound recorders, were compared for a range of habitat types in the Tumut area of south-eastern Australia. There was a significant, and roughly linear, decline in vocal activity across the morning after an initial early peak of activity. Vocal activity persisted longer at sites located within large areas of continuous eucalypt forest than in the strip- and patch-shaped eucalypt remnants surrounded by extensive stands of radiata pine or at sites dominated by stands of radiata pine. There was evidence that the pattern of persistence of vocal activity differed among the different bird groups.

Patch use by the greater glider (Petauroides volans) in a fragmented forest ecosystem. I. Home range size and movements

This paper examines home-range attributes of 40 greater gliders (Petauroides volans) in five patches of remnant eucalypt forest surrounded by stands of radiata pine (Pinus radiata) near Tumut in south-eastern Australia. Fixed-kernel smoothing methods were used to estimate home-range size for P. volans. For males, home-range size varied from 1.38–4.10 ha (mean = 2.6 ± 0.8 ha, n = 12) and was significantly larger (P < 0.05) than for females (1.26–2.97 ha, mean = 2.0 ± 0.6 ha, n = 11). Home-range size increased significantly with increasing patch size and reduced patch population density. Thus, small patches had more animals per unit area with smaller home ranges and greater home-range overlap. Our findings illustrate flexibility in the use of space by P. volans. Such results have not previously been reported for P. volans or any other species of arboreal marsupial. Considerable home-range overlap (at 95th percentile isopleth level) was observed between male and female P. volans. Pairs of females also exhibited home-range overlap. Males tended to maintain home ranges exclusive of other males, although some shared common areas. Contrary to the large variations observed in home-range area, core areas (50th isopleth) remained relatively constant, regardless of patch size, population density or sex. This may indicate that core areas are an essential requirement for individuals and resources they contain cannot be shared with congeners.

The use of nest boxes by arboreal marsupials in the forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria

The results are reported of a nest-box study conducted in two locations in the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria (south-eastern Australia) to compare usage of different nest-box designs located at different heights in trees. A total of 96 nest boxes was established using a rigorous experimental design – two regions (Powelltown and Toolangi State Forests), two forest age classes (20-year post-logging regrowth and 60-year fire- and salvage-logging regrowth), two nest-box designs (large boxes with large entrance holes and small boxes with small entrance holes), and two heights at which nest boxes were attached to trees (3 m and 8 m above the ground). The study entailed setting out four nest boxes at each of 24 sites to meet the design criteria. Evidence of occupancy by vertebrates was recorded in a total of 19 of 96 boxes on 11 of 24 sites site during regular inspections over more than three years. Thirteen boxes were used by Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), six by the mountain brushtail possum (Trichosurus cunninghami) and seven by the common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus). The common ringtail possum and mountain brushtail possum were seen only in high–large boxes but Leadbeater's possum used all but the low–large boxes. There was evidence of spatial dependence in usage patterns, with all four boxes at a given site showing signs of eventually being occupied. Only two nest boxes located in mountain ash forest regenerating after the 1939 wildfires were occupied. Relatively limited use of nest boxes supports concerns about the use of a nest box over large scales and long timeframes as an effective recovery tool for species threatened by the loss and subsequent shortage in the numbers of naturally occurring hollows.

Lindenmayer D, J. Eyre T, R. Phinn S. Landscape surrogates of forest fragmentation: Synthesis of Australian Montreal Process case studies

Habitat loss and fragmentation are key biodiversity indicators of the Montreal Protocol for monitoring progress towards ecologically sustainable forest management. Over the last 15 years, an array of landscape metrics have been developed as spatial measures of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, most metrics require rigorous empirical testing if they are to provide scientifically credible information to managers and policy makers. We present a synthesis of three Australian case studies for developing Montreal Indicator 1.1e, fragmentation of forest type, each representing different levels of landscape modification: St Mary State Forest, south-east Queensland; Tumut, southern New South Wales; and the Central Highlands, Victoria. Collectively, the studies found that no single landscape metric captured the response of the target species and fauna assemblages, or served as a reliable ecological surrogate for the conservation of a large set of species. Rather, species demonstrated a diversity of responses to habitat loss and fragmentation. Fragmentation effects were more important for the Tumut study, but not important for the Central Highlands study. Stand-scale habitat variables and area of suitable habitat were dominant explanatory variables for the St Mary study. Differences in observed response are partly explained by: (i) differences in landscape structure, particularly the proportion of preferred forest habitat remaining; (ii) differences in the ecology of target species; and (iii) the insensitivity of the landscape measures. Based on the outcomes of the three case studies, we propose principles for developing landscape surrogates for conserving biodiversity in Australia's eucalypt forest landscapes.

Dispersal patterns and population structure in a small marsupial, Antechinus agilis, from two forests analysed using microsatellite markers

Juvenile male agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis) are thought to disperse immediately after they leave the nest, whereas females are philopatric. However, no genetic data are available to support a hypothesis of male-biased dispersal, and the possible effects of habitat characteristics on dispersal are not known. We used five microsatellite loci to describe the dispersal patterns and population structure of A. agilis at two different forested sites (Mt Donna Buang and Mt Disappointment in central Victoria, south-eastern Australia). Within each site, DNA samples were collected from individuals from different trapping grids (four grids in Mt Donna Buang, collected over two years, and seven grids at Mt Disappointment, collected over one year). To assess levels of genetic structuring among the populations, Fst values (the proportion of genetic variance among populations) were calculated for each site and sex separately, and a test for isolation by distance was performed. Overall, Fst values were low, and did not increase with distance, and this may be the result of high levels of gene flow for both sexes at both sites, at least on the scale of less than 10 km. To investigate microsatellite patterns at a finer scale, we calculated pair-wise relatedness values separately for sites, years and sexes. By comparing these values for animals within and between grids, evidence was found for male-biased dispersal. A genetic assignment test provided further evidence for this: males were more likely to be assigned to grids other than their capture site. Most females had high assignment values for their capture site, although some of the females may have been immigrants. This result could be due to inaccuracies in the assignment test, or due to a higher frequency of dispersal of females than previously thought. The sex-biased dispersal was less pronounced at Mt Disappointment than at Mt Donna Buang. This may be related to the level of disturbance: logging patches, roads and fire-breaks (grass strips) disrupt the forest at Mt Disappointment more than at Mt Donna Buang.

Geographic dimorphism in the mountain brushtail possum (Trichosurus caninus): the case for a new species

The morphological and genetic characteristics of the mountain brushtail possum (Trichosurus caninus) are described for animals from a range of locations throughout its known geographic distribution in eastern Australia. Although there is considerable variation among populations, unequivocal morphological and genetic differences exist between northern and southern populations of the species. Specimens from southern populations (from Victoria) have a significantly (P < 0.001) larger ear conch, a significantly (P < 0.001) longer pes, and a significantly (P < 0.001) shorter tail than do specimens from northern populations (from New South Wales and Queensland). Animals can be clearly distinguished using a simple index based on these three morphological measures, which are gathered from live animals. North–south dimorphism is strongly supported by patterns in genetic data that show genetic distances of 2.7–3.0% between the southern and northern populations. The combined outcomes of morphological and genetic analyses suggest the existence of two distinct species. We recommend that the northern form, distributed from central New South Wales north to central Queensland, retain the name Trichosurus caninus; the southern form from Victoria is described here as Trichosurus cunninghami, sp. nov. The common names of these new species should be the 'short-eared possum' and the 'mountain brushtail possum', respectively.

Claridge A, M. Gilmore A, Michael D, D. Lindenmayer B. The ecological roles of logs in Australian forests and the potential impacts of harvesting intensification on log-using biota

A review is presented of the ecological values of logs in Australian eucalypt forests. Logs are a key component of stand structural complexity and have critical functional roles for forest biodiversity including:- (1) providing nesting and sheltering sites for biota, (2) providing foraging substrates for predators like snakes and predatory invertebrates such as velvet worms, (3) providing basking and hibernation sites for reptiles, (4) facilitating animal movement, (5) providing places for key social behaviours, (6) acting as plant germination sites, (7) providing substrates to promote the growth of fungi, (8) providing mesic refugia for organisms during drought and/or fire, and (9) contributing to heterogeneity in the litter layer and patterns of ground cover. Logs also play significant roles in nutrient cycling in forests. The role of logs is often ignored in forestry operations, including those where harvesting intensification will occur through the removal of dead and/or "defective" standing trees and logs under the guise of removing so-called waste or logging "residues". Recently proposed intensive large-scale forestry operations in the Australian native forest estate (e.g., biomass burning power plants and charcoal plants) have the potential to reduce stand structural complexity, alter forest ecosystem function and negatively impact upon log-dependent species in those part of the landscape where harvesting takes place. The risks of such impacts have not been adequately measured in Australia, but they need to be addressed urgently. Prescriptions for the retention and future recruitment of logs must be developed to avert possible losses of biodiversity.

Hematological and plasma biochemical values of the greater glider in Australia

Reference hematological and plasma biochemical values are presented for the greater glider (Petauroides volans) at Tumut (southeastern New South Wales, Australia). Nineteen animals were sampled during a capture period of 1 wk in August 1999. Values for red cell counts were significantly higher in male animals (mean +/- SE; males: 5.6 +/- 0.1; females: 5.2 +/- 0.1). Young animals had higher white cell counts than older ones (mean +/- SE; young: 4.9 +/- 0.4; older: 2.8 +/- 0.4). Lymphocytes were the predominant white blood cell type in this species.