Linking stress and immunity: Immunoglobulin A as a non-invasive physiological biomarker in animal welfare studies

As the animal welfare community strives to empirically assess how care and management practices can help maintain or even enhance welfare, the development of tools for non-invasively measuring physiological biomarkers is essential. Of the suite of physiological biomarkers, Immunoglobulin A (IgA), particularly the secretory form (Secretory IgA or SIgA), is at the forefront because of its crucial role in mucosal immunity and links to physical health, stress, and overall psychological well-being. While interpretation of changes in SIgA concentrations on short time scales is complex, long-term SIgA patterns are consistent: conditions that create chronic stress lead to suppression of SIgA. In contrast, when welfare is enhanced, SIgA is predicted to stabilize at higher concentrations. In this review, we examine how SIgA concentrations are reflective of both physiological stress and immune function. We then review the literature associating SIgA concentrations with various metrics of animal welfare and provide detailed methodological considerations for SIgA monitoring. Overall, our aim is to provide an in-depth discussion regarding the value of SIgA as physiological biomarker to studies aiming to understand the links between stress and immunity.

Impacts of natural history and exhibit factors on carnivore welfare

To improve the welfare of nonhuman animals under professional care, zoological institutions are continuously utilizing new methods to identify factors that lead to optimal welfare. Comparative methods have historically been used in the field of evolutionary biology but are increasingly being applied in the field of animal welfare. In the current study, data were obtained from direct behavioral observation and institutional records representing 80 individual animals from 34 different species of the order Carnivora. Data were examined to determine if a variety of natural history and animal management factors impacted the welfare of animals in zoological institutions. Output variables indicating welfare status included behavioral diversity, pacing, offspring production, and infant mortality. Results suggested that generalist species have higher behavioral diversity and offspring production in zoos compared with their specialist counterparts. In addition, increased minimum distance from the public decreased pacing and increased offspring production, while increased maximum distance from the public and large enclosure size decreased infant mortality. These results have implications for future exhibit design or renovation, as well as management practices and priorities for future research.

REMOVED: Investigating misophonia: A review of the literature, clinical implications and research agenda reflecting current neuroscience and emotion research perspectives

This article has been removed: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal). This article has been removed at the request of the authors due to errors in the author list.

Seasonal, Diel, and Age Differences in Activity Budgets of a Group of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) Under Professional Care

Wild bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) behavior is impacted by a number of factors including season, time of day, and age. However, less is known about how these factors may influence animals under professional care in zoos, aquariums and marine parks. Management practices such as scheduled feeding times, human interactions, lack of predators and show performances may also impact the activity budgets of dolphins. The current study examined the rest, swim and play behavior of seven dolphins (three adults, four calves) at one facility. Data were collected over the entire 24-hour day for a period of one year. Observed behaviors were recorded in mutually exclusive categories including rest, low intensity swim, high intensity swim, low intensity play, high intensity play and social play. Data were analyzed to determine how often dolphins engaged in particular behaviors and if activity budgets varied due to season, time of day and age. These dolphins spent the majority of their time in low intensity swim and low intensity play. The activity budget varied between observational periods. First, seasonal differences were found in low intensity swim, low intensity play, social play and high intensity play behaviors. In the comparison for time of day, differences were found in rest, low intensity swim, low intensity play and social play. Finally, no significant differences were found in age comparisons. Information gained from this study can help to better understand how different factors influence the behavior of bottlenose dolphins under professional care within zoos, aquariums and marine parks.

Cholecystokinin-induced satiety, a key gut servomechanism that is affected by the membrane microenvironment of this receptor

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract has a central role in nutritional homeostasis, as location for food ingestion, digestion and absorption, with the gut endocrine system responding to and regulating these events, as well as influencing appetite. One key GI hormone with the full spectrum of these activities is cholecystokinin (CCK), a peptide released from neuroendocrine I cells scattered through the proximal intestine in response to fat and protein, with effects to stimulate gall bladder contraction and pancreatic exocrine secretion, to regulate gastric emptying and intestinal transit, and to induce satiety. There has been interest in targeting the type 1 CCK receptor (CCK1R) for drug development to provide non-caloric satiation as an aid to dieting and weight loss; however, there have been concerns about CCK1R agonists related to side effects and potential trophic impact on the pancreas. A positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of CCK action at this receptor without intrinsic agonist activity could provide a safer and more effective approach to long-term administration. In addition, CCK1R stimulus-activity coupling has been shown to be negatively affected by excess membrane cholesterol, a condition described in the metabolic syndrome, thereby potentially interfering with an important servomechanism regulating appetite. A PAM targeting this receptor could also potentially correct the negative impact of cholesterol on CCK1R function. We will review the molecular basis for binding natural peptide agonist, binding and action of small molecules within the allosteric pocket, and the impact of cholesterol. Novel strategies for taking advantage of this receptor for the prevention and management of obesity will be reviewed.

Recumbence Behavior in Zoo Elephants: Determination of Patterns and Frequency of Recumbent Rest and Associated Environmental and Social Factors

Resting behaviors are an essential component of animal welfare but have received little attention in zoological research. African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) rest includes recumbent postures, but no large-scale investigation of African and Asian zoo elephant recumbence has been previously conducted. We used anklets equipped with accelerometers to measure recumbence in 72 adult female African (n = 44) and Asian (n = 28) elephants housed in 40 North American zoos. We collected 344 days of data and determined associations between recumbence and social, housing, management, and demographic factors. African elephants were recumbent less (2.1 hours/day, S.D. = 1.1) than Asian elephants (3.2 hours/day, S.D. = 1.5; P < 0.001). Nearly one-third of elephants were non-recumbent on at least one night, suggesting this is a common behavior. Multi-variable regression models for each species showed that substrate, space, and social variables had the strongest associations with recumbence. In the African model, elephants who spent any amount of time housed on all-hard substrate were recumbent 0.6 hours less per day than those who were never on all-hard substrate, and elephants who experienced an additional acre of outdoor space at night increased their recumbence by 0.48 hours per day. In the Asian model, elephants who spent any amount of time housed on all-soft substrate were recumbent 1.1 hours more per day more than those who were never on all-soft substrate, and elephants who spent any amount of time housed alone were recumbent 0.77 hours more per day than elephants who were never housed alone. Our results draw attention to the significant interspecific difference in the amount of recumbent rest and in the factors affecting recumbence; however, in both species, the influence of flooring substrate is notably important to recumbent rest, and by extension, zoo elephant welfare.

Walking Behavior of Zoo Elephants: Associations between GPS-Measured Daily Walking Distances and Environmental Factors, Social Factors, and Welfare Indicators

Research with humans and other animals suggests that walking benefits physical health. Perhaps because these links have been demonstrated in other species, it has been suggested that walking is important to elephant welfare, and that zoo elephant exhibits should be designed to allow for more walking. Our study is the first to address this suggestion empirically by measuring the mean daily walking distance of elephants in North American zoos, determining the factors that are associated with variations in walking distance, and testing for associations between walking and welfare indicators. We used anklets equipped with GPS data loggers to measure outdoor daily walking distance in 56 adult female African (n = 33) and Asian (n = 23) elephants housed in 30 North American zoos. We collected 259 days of data and determined associations between distance walked and social, housing, management, and demographic factors. Elephants walked an average of 5.3 km/day with no significant difference between species. In our multivariable model, more diverse feeding regimens were correlated with increased walking, and elephants who were fed on a temporally unpredictable feeding schedule walked 1.29 km/day more than elephants fed on a predictable schedule. Distance walked was also positively correlated with an increase in the number of social groupings and negatively correlated with age. We found a small but significant negative correlation between distance walked and nighttime Space Experience, but no other associations between walking distances and exhibit size were found. Finally, distance walked was not related to health or behavioral outcomes including foot health, joint health, body condition, and the performance of stereotypic behavior, suggesting that more research is necessary to determine explicitly how differences in walking may impact elephant welfare.

Elephant Management in North American Zoos: Environmental Enrichment, Feeding, Exercise, and Training

The management of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants’ nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these practices are not standardized, resulting in likely variation among zoos as well as differences in the way they are applied to individual elephants within a zoo. To characterize elephant management in North America, we collected survey data from zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, generated population level descriptive statistics, and analyzed them to identify differences attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos submitted surveys describing the management of 224 elephants and the training experiences of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more time managed (defined as interacting directly with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), and managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age for both species. Enrichment, feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated using diversity indices, with mean scores across zoos in the midrange for these measures. There were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative use of rewarding and aversive techniques employed during training interactions. The population median was seven on a scale from one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results of our study provide essential information for understanding management variation that could be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables we created have been used in subsequent elephant welfare analyses.

Zoo visitor perceptions, attitudes, and conservation intent after viewing African elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park

Elephants in the wild face several conservation issues. With the rebranding of zoos as conservation and education pioneers, they have the ability to both educate and inspire guests to action. The purpose of this research was to analyze visitor perceptions and attitudes toward elephant conservation and outcomes post-exhibit visit. A one-page survey was randomly administered to assess perceptions of elephant behavior, attitudes about elephant conservation, and intended conservation-related outcomes from September 2013 to January 2014. Principle component analysis identified three major components: concern for elephants in zoos, importance of elephants in the wild, and modification of nature. Visitors who scored highly on conservation intent were those with positive attitudes towards elephants in the wild and negative attitudes regarding the modification of nature. The greatest changes in conservation intent were a result of a self-reported up-close encounter and the ability to witness active behaviors. Providing guests with the opportunity to witness or experience such occurrences may aid in a more successful delivery of the zoo's conservation message. Further research into guest emotions and affective states in relation to viewing elephants in a zoological institution would provide greater insight into improving the guest experience and helping zoos meet their conservation mission. Zoo Biol. 35:355-361, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A Comparison of Walking Rates Between Wild and Zoo African Elephants

With increased scrutiny surrounding the welfare of elephants in zoological institutions, it is important to have empirical evidence on their current welfare status. If elephants are not receiving adequate exercise, it could lead to obesity, which can lead to many issues including acyclicity and potentially heart disease. The goal of the current study was to compare the walking rates of elephants in the wild versus elephants in zoos to determine if elephants are walking similar distances relative to their wild counterparts. Eleven wild elephants throughout different habitats and locations in Botswana were compared to 8 elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Direct comparisons revealed no significant difference in average walking rates of zoo elephants when compared with wild elephants. These results suggest that elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park walk similar rates to those of wild elephants and may be meeting their exercise needs.

Structural and functional insights into the juxtamembranous amino-terminal tail and extracellular loop regions of class B GPCRs

Class B guanine nucleotide-binding protein GPCRs share heptahelical topology and signalling via coupling with heterotrimeric G proteins typical of the entire superfamily of GPCRs. However, they also exhibit substantial structural differences from the more extensively studied class A GPCRs. Even their helical bundle region, most conserved across the superfamily, is predicted to differ from that of class A GPCRs. Much is now known about the conserved structure of the amino-terminal domain of class B GPCRs, coming from isolated NMR and crystal structures, but the orientation of that domain relative to the helical bundle is unknown, and even less is understood about the conformations of the juxtamembranous amino-terminal tail or of the extracellular loops linking the transmembrane segments. We now review what is known about the structure and function of these regions of class B GPCRs. This comes from indirect analysis of structure-function relationships elucidated by mutagenesis and/or ligand modification and from the more direct analysis of spatial approximation coming from photoaffinity labelling and cysteine trapping studies. Also reviewed are the limited studies of structure of some of these regions. No dominant theme was recognized for the structures or functional roles of distinct regions of these juxtamembranous portions of the class B GPCRs. Therefore, it is likely that a variety of molecular strategies can be engaged for docking of agonist ligands and for initiation of conformational changes in these receptors that would be expected to converge to a common molecular mechanism for activation of intracellular signalling cascades.

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14: overview

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14 provides concise overviews of the key properties of over 2000 human drug targets with their pharmacology, plus links to an open access knowledgebase of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties from the IUPHAR database. The full contents can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.12444/full. This compilation of the major pharmacological targets is divided into seven areas of focus: G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, ion channels, catalytic receptors, nuclear hormone receptors, transporters and enzymes. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. A new landscape format has easy to use tables comparing related targets. It is a condensed version of material contemporary to late 2013, which is presented in greater detail and constantly updated on the website www.guidetopharmacology.org, superseding data presented in previous Guides to Receptors & Channels. It is produced in conjunction with NC-IUPHAR and provides the official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate. It consolidates information previously curated and displayed separately in IUPHAR-DB and GRAC and provides a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates.

Diurnal and nocturnal activity budgets of zoo elephants in an outdoor facility

The present study examined the activity budgets of 15 African elephants (1 bull, 6 cows, 2 male juveniles, 2 female juveniles, and 4 male calves) living at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park during the summers of 2010 and 2011. Onsite behavioral data (n = 600 hr) were collected for approximately 12 weeks from 0400 to 0830 and 1100 to 2400 during the 2010 and 2011 summer season. Foraging was the most common behavior state during the day followed by resting, and walking. During the evening hours, the elephants spent majority of their time foraging, resting, and sleeping. The average rate of self-maintenance behavior events (dust, wallow, etc.) increased from 0600 to 0700, 1100 to 1500, and from 1700 to 1900. Positive social behavior events (touch other, play, etc.) remained high from 0500 to 2300, with peaks at 0600, 1300, 1500, and 1900. Negative social events occurred at low rates throughout the day and night, with peaks at 0600, 1900, and 2200. The majority of positive behavior events during the daylight and nighttime hours involved the mother-calf pairs. Furthermore, the calves and juveniles initiated approximately 60% of all social events during the daytime and 57% of all social interactions at night. The results of this study demonstrate the differences between diurnal and nocturnal activity budgets of a multi-age and sex elephant herd in a zoological facility, which highlights the importance of managing elephants to meet their 24 hr behavioral needs.

The class B G-protein-coupled GLP-1 receptor: an important target for the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a gastrointestinal hormone secreted from L cells in the distal small intestine and proximal colon after a meal that acts as an incretin to augment the insulin response, while also inhibiting glucagon and slowing gastric emptying. These characteristics of GLP-1, as well as its ability to reduce islet beta cell apoptosis and expand beta cell mass and its cardioprotective and neuroprotective effects, provide a broad spectrum of actions potentially useful for the management of type-2 diabetes mellitus. GLP-1 also has the added advantage of having its incretin effects dependent on the level of serum glucose, only acting in the presence of hyperglycaemia, and thereby preventing hypoglycemic responses. Although natural GLP-1 has a very short half-life, limiting its therapeutic usefulness, a variety of analogues and formulations have been developed to provide extended actions and to limit side effects. However, all of these peptides require parenteral administration. Potentially orally active small-molecule agonists acting at the GLP-1 receptor are also being developed, but have not yet been approved for clinical use. Recent insights into the molecular nature of the class B G-protein-coupled GLP-1 receptor has provided insights into the modes of binding these types of ligands, as well as providing opportunities for rational enhancement. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these agents and their possible clinical utility will be explored.

Future Directions in Comparative Psychology: An Introduction to the Special Issue

The purpose of this special issue is to highlight the publication trends regarding research in today’s field of comparative psychology. A survey was conducted to determine the research priorities of institutions and researchers currently pursuing research with animals. Over 200 responses were received from 28 different countries representing scientists from many different backgrounds and institutions. Top priorities for research interests were clearly divided by the setting in which scientists conducted their research with animals. Experts from the fields identified as the most important future research topics on comparative psychology were invited to review their respective fields for publication trends over the last 20 years. The results of their significant efforts and the importance of continuing research in comparative psychology are presented and addressed in this special issue. We hope that this information will not only guide research within these fields but also identify potential overlap between zoos/aquariums and academic institutions to further collaboration within the field.

Receptor activity-modifying protein-dependent impairment of calcitonin receptor splice variant Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) function

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Alternative splicing expands proteome diversity to GPCRs. Distinct receptor variants have been identified for a secretin family GPCR, the calcitonin receptor (CTR). The possible functional contributions of these receptor variants are further altered by their potential interactions with receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs). One variant of the human CTR lacks the first 47 residues at its N terminus [Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) ]. However, very little is known about the pharmacology of this variant or its ability to interact with RAMPs to form amylin receptors.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) was characterized both with and without RAMPs in Cos7 and/or HEK293S cells. The receptor expression (ELISA assays) and function (cAMP and pERK1/2 assays) for up to six agonists and two antagonists were determined.

KEY RESULTS

Despite lacking 47 residues at the N terminus, Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) was still able to express at the cell surface, but displayed a generalized reduction in peptide potency. Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) retained its ability to interact with RAMP1 and formed a functional amylin receptor; this also appeared to be the case with RAMP3. On the other hand, its interaction with RAMP2 and resultant amylin receptor was reduced to a greater extent.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Δ(1-47)hCT((a)) acts as a functional receptor at the cell surface. It exhibits altered receptor function, depending on whether it associates with a RAMP and which RAMP it interacts with. Therefore, the presence of this variant in tissues will potentially contribute to altered peptide binding and signalling, depending on the RAMP distribution in tissues.

Utilizing First Occurrence, Nursing Behavior, and Growth Data toEnhance Animal Management: An Example with African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)

One of the many goals of zoological institutions is to actively breed endangered species to enhance conservation efforts. Unfortunately, many of these species are not reproducing at high enough levels to sustain populations within zoos. Low reproductive success and high infant mortality are two areas of concern for some of these species. Collecting behavioral data on developmental milestones following successful births can create a database of information to aide animal management to help make more informed decisions during subsequent births. The current study provides valuable information for African elephant calf developmental norms and demonstrates how data on first occurrences, nursing behavior and growth patterns can aide animal management. Data were collected on eleven African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in Escondido, CA of which ten have survived. Results show that on average African elephant calves were standing within 40 minutes, attempted to nurse within an hour and a half, and successfully nursed within six hrs. There were no significant differences in nursing rates, growth patterns, or first occurrence behaviors between males and females during the first 75 days of life and elephants gained on average 0.59 kg/day over that same period of time. Results also show a significant change in nursing behavior on day 22 for the elephant calf that died. This information is intended to serve as a resource for elephant managers with newborn African elephants and to serve as a model to develop similar type databases for other species in need within zoological institutions.

The Importance of Behavioral Research in Zoological Institutions: An Introduction to the Special Issue

Behavioral research within zoological institutions (zoos and aquariums) has a long history that has helped to increase basic scientific knowledge and to facilitate the ability of institutions to make informed animal management decisions. Kleiman (1992) stated that "behavior research in zoos has enormous potential to contribute positively to the science of animal management, long-term breeding programs, conservation biology, and the advancement of scientific theory" (p. 309). As evidenced by the papers in this issue, behavioral research in zoos continues to be important. The purpose of this special issue is to highlight some of the behavioral research being conducted within zoos and aquariums and to demonstrate the importance of such work to zoological institutions and the greater scientific community. With a better understanding of the importance of behavioral research, we hope to inspire more zoological facilities to become involved either through funding/conducting research or by actively promoting the use of their animal collections for behavioral research to both the zoological and academic communities. Historically, most of the behavioral research in zoos and aquariums was intended to increase basic scientific knowledge. More recently, there has been a shift in focus to applied topics in order to help solve animal management issues (Hutchins & Thompson, 2008; Kleiman, 1992; Stoinski, Lukas, & Maple, 1998). Such issues range from reproduction and behavioral development of species that are difficult to breed to determining the effects of environmental or management factors on the welfare of individual or groups of animals. The abstracts submitted for consideration for this special issue reflect this trend towards applied research in zoos and aquariums. Applied research represented approximately 76% (n = 50) of the abstracts that were submitted for the special issue. While not necessarily representative of behavioral research as a whole throughout zoological institutions around the world, the numbers nonetheless suggest that applied research comprises the majority of the behavioral research focus within zoos and aquariums.