Nitric oxide synthase isoenzyme expression in human oral lichen planus

The roles of nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) enzyme in pathological mechanisms of the oral cavity are still incompletely understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of the endothelial, neuronal and inducible isoforms of NOS (eNOS, nNOS and iNOS) in oral lichen planus (OLP) development in humans. OLP and healthy oral mucosa biopsies were taken for mRNA and protein analysis of NOS isoenzymes by RT-PCR, western blot and immunohistochemistry. The mRNA and protein levels of eNOS and nNOS were present in all samples, with a significant increase only for eNOS in OLP. The normal oral mucosa exhibited only small amounts of iNOS mRNA and protein, while it showed a significant rise in OLP samples. These results were confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis. Our findings suggest that NO produced by increased eNOS and iNOS expression may have circulatory and immune functions in the development of OLP.

Analysis of genomic methylation level using micellar electrokinetic chromatography with UV detection

Analytical methods for quantification of 5'-methylcytosine in genomes are important tools to investigate epigenetic changes in gene expression during development, differentiation, aging, or cancer. Here, we report a novel genomic methylation content assay based on enzymatic hydrolysis of DNA and MEKC separation of 5'-deoxyribonucleoside monophosphates (dNMP) using the cationic surfactant CTAB as pseudostationary phase. Calf Thymus DNA was used during method development to determine electrophoretic parameters and electrolyte composition for a complete separation between 2'-deoxycytosine-5'-monophosphate and 2'-deoxy-5'-methylcytosine 5'-monophosphate (d5mCMP). Methylated and not methylated oligonucleotides were used to confirm the identity of each peak and evaluate analytical parameters of the method. The LOD of the method was found to be 12.5 pmol/μL for d5mCMP.

Negative feedback interaction of HO-1/INOS in PBMC of acute congestive heart failure patients

Heart failure (HF) is a common clinical syndrome with frequent exacerbations requiring hospitalization. Among the various mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of HF, the activation of the immune system leads to a progressive and redundant release of proinflammatory cytokines responsible for a variety of deleterious effects in heart failure, such as endothelial dysfunction, apoptosis of myocytes, activation of MMPs (Matrix Metallo Proteinases) and oxidative stress, with the result of decreased inotropism and clinical syndrome such as pulmonary edema,. The condition of oxidative stress induces the expression of genes coding for the proteins inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Twenty-five hospitalized cardiology patients with symptomatic acute congestive HF (NYHA Class III-IV) and impaired left ventricular (LV) function (ejection fraction less than 35 percent) were included in the study. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytokines plasma concentrations and the expression and activity of iNOS and HO-1 proteins in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) extracted from patients in comparison to control group. In ACHF; left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) percent was reduced. Furthermore; iNOS and HO-1 expression and cytokines plasma levels were significantly higher in patients with ACHF as compared to controls group. Moreover the enzyme activity presents an opposite trend compared to that obtained in the analysis of the transcript and proteins. Our studies suggest a negative feedback interaction between iNOS and HO-1 important in the physiopathology of heart failure that could be considered a good candidate as a future therapeutic target for the development of new drugs.

Positive correlation between serum interleukin-1β and state anger in rugby athletes

Recently, several studies reported a relationship between immune system activation and anger expression. Consequently, the aim of this study was to explore immunitary molecular mechanisms that potentially underlie anger expression. To this end, we applied the Frustration-Aggression Theory in a contact sport model, utilizing the nearing of sporting events to trigger anger feelings. In parallel, we evaluated the activation of immune system at mRNA levels. We enrolled 20 amateur rugby players (age ± SD, 27.2 ± 4.5) who underwent psychological assessment to evaluate anger, with the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2), before rugby matches; at the same time blood samples were taken to analyze the variations of gene expression by microarray. During the 2 hr before each game, a significant increase was verified in the Rage State (RS) score compared to the score ascertained 72 hr before. At the same time, we found modulation in expression profile, in particular increased expression of gene that encodes interleukin l-β (IL-1β). In a regression analysis, RS score was related to IL-1β, and the potential risk factors age, body mass index, smoking, and drinking. The levels of cytokine were positively and independently related to RS score. Our results suggest that the nearing of sporting event can trigger anger state feelings and activate immune system in rugby players. We propose the IL-1β as a potential biological marker of anger. However, further research is necessary to clarify the correlation between cytokine and anger.

The biological evaluation of ADMA/SDMA and eNOS in patients with ACHF

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acute pharmacological treatment on the plasma levels of l-arginine, asymmetrical dimethylarginine (ADMA), and symmetrical dimethylarginine (SDMA). We also investigated the related effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and activity and cytochrome c oxidase activity in the primary blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from patients with acute congestive heart failure (ACHF). Compared to pre-treatment values, ADMA, SDMA, and l-arginine plasma levels were significantly higher after pharmacological treatment (ADMA, 0.82 versus 0.43 µM; SDMA, 1.52 versus 1.12 µM; l-arginine, 1.78 versus 1.29 µM; p < 0.01. In addition, the levels of eNOS expression and activity were decreased after pharmacological treatment, while cytochrome c oxidase activity resulted in higher O2-production. In the PBMCs isolated from patients with acute congestive heart failure (ACHF) and impaired renal function, higher SDMA and ADMA levels were more evident after therapy, as were reduced expression and activity of eNOS. Increased O2- produced after treatment may be involved in impaired recovery of cardiac function associated with higher plasma levels of SDMA.

Activity of matrix metallo proteinases (MMPs) and the tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-1 in electromagnetic field-exposed THP-1 cells

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) are the main determinants of tissue remodeling in both physiological and pathological processes. Metabolic processes, which generate oxidants and antioxidants can be influenced by environmental factors such as electromagnetic fields (EMF). We analyzed the effects of EMF on the activity and expression of MMPs in THP-1 cells. Cells were exposed to a 50 Hz, 1 mT EMF for 24 h and incubated with or without LPS. Our data indicate that THP-1 cells exposed to EMF causes a reduction of anti-oxidant enzyme activity and an enhancement of nitrogen intermediates involving the iNOS pathway. We then analyzed the role of nitration of TIMP-1 in increasing the activity of MMPs in EMF exposed cells. Molecular modeling tools were employed to identify the most plausible sites in the active conformation of TIMP-1; at least two protein sites, Y120 and Y38 and/or Y72 were identified. Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) may affect protein targets, such as TIMP-1, which are crucial for the regulation of MMP activities by oxidation of sulfydryl groups, or by nitration of tyrosine residues. These results may suggest a pathway connecting an imbalance of MMPs and their cognate inhibitor TIMP-1.

BNP and iNOS in decompensated chronic heart failure: a linear correlation

Heart Failure (HF) is characterized by activation inflammatory mediators that contributes to the disease progression. Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) plasma levels increase in HF with a prognostic significance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression and activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) extracted from patients and a possible linear correlation between iNOS and plasma levels of BNP in decompensated chronic HF (DCHF) patients. To establish the DCHF, thirty-five male patients were evaluated. All patients were venesected within 24 h of admission to exclude an inflammatory state through evaluation of c-reactive protein. Only twenty subjects showed symptoms of DCHF were included in the study. Other patients were included in the control group. In DCHF, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) percent was reduced and systolic pulmonary artery pressure (PAPs) was increased. Furthermore, iNOS expression and BNP plasma levels were significantly higher in patients with DCHF as compared to controls group. These findings indicate that in DCHF patients, iNOS activity exhibits a significant linear correlation with plasmatic BNP level.

BNP and iNOS in decompensated chronic heart failure: a linear correlation

Heart Failure (HF) is characterized by activation inflammatory mediators that contributes to the disease progression. Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) plasma levels increase in HF with a prognostic significance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression and activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) extracted from patients and a possible linear correlation between iNOS and plasma levels of BNP in decompensated chronic HF (DCHF) patients. To establish the DCHF, thirty-five male patients were evaluated. All patients were venesected within 24 h of admission to exclude an inflammatory state through evaluation of c-reactive protein. Only twenty subjects showed symptoms of DCHF were included in the study. Other patients were included in the control group. In DCHF, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) percent was reduced and systolic pulmonary artery pressure (PAPs) was increased. Furthermore, iNOS expression and BNP plasma levels were significantly higher in patients with DCHF as compared to controls group. These findings indicate that in DCHF patients, iNOS activity exhibits a significant linear correlation with plasmatic BNP level.

The role of inducible nitric oxide synthase and haem oxygenase 1 in growth and development of dental tissue'

In this study, the activity of the antioxidant enzyme network was assessed spectrophotometrically in samples of dental pulp and dental papilla taken from third-molar gem extracts. The production of nitric oxide by the conversion of l-(2,3,4,5)-[3H] arginine to l-(3H) citrulline, the activity of haem oxygenase 1 (HO-1) through bilirubin synthesis and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), HO-1 proteins and messenger RNA by Western blot and reverse-transcribed polymerase chain reaction were also tested. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of two proteins, iNOS and HO-1, which are upregulated by a condition of oxidative stress present during dental tissue differentiation and development. This is fundamental for guaranteeing proper homeostasis favouring a physiological tissue growth. The results revealed an over-expression of iNOS and HO-1 in the papilla, compared with that in the pulp, mediated by the nuclear factor kappa B transcription factor activated by the reactive oxygen species that acts as scavengers for the superoxide radicals. HO-1, a metabolically active enzyme in the papilla, but not in the pulp, seems to inhibit the iNOS enzyme by a crosstalk between the two proteins. We suggest that the probable mechanism through which this happens is the interaction of HO-1 with haem, a cofactor dimer indispensible for iNOS, and the subsequent suppression of its metabolic activity.

Allergic inflammation: role of cytokines with special emphasis on IL-4

This review examines recent articles on the relationship of cytokines to allergy and inflammation with particular emphasis on interleukin (IL)-4. The objective of this article is therefore to review published studies to identify cytokines consistently involved in allergic inflammation. Proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and GM-CSF along with TNF-alpha play a role in allergen-induced airway leukocyte recruitment and these cytokines can be generated by T mast cells and other cells. In addition, IL-9, IL-25, IL-33, IL-17, IL-27 and IFN-gamma are deeply involved in the regulation of asthma. Blocking the effect of these proinflammatory cytokines might provide new therapeutic approaches for the control of allergy and inflammation.

Biological role of interleukin-1beta in defensive-aggressive behaviour

During the past decade, a great deal of data has accumulated supporting the notion that cytokines interact to regulate several aspects of social and emotional behaviour. There are reports of a positive correlation between cytokine levels and aggressive behaviour in healthy populations, and clinical reports describe an increase of aggressive traits in patients who receive cytokine immunotherapy. Interleukin-1beta released during an immune response acts as messenger that helps to modulate behaviour by influencing relevant neurotransmitter systems, and in some cases, by directly acting within the brain. In this site, IL-1beta exerts its actions by acting through 5-HT2 and IL-1 Type I receptors in hypothalamus or by potentially indirect routes, including activation of sensory afferents, and stimulation of cytokine release by brain endothelial cells. This review reports research investigating the relationship between IL-1beta, and the immune and central nervous systems involving or potentially involving defensive aggressive behaviour.

The biological effect of pharmacological treatment on dimethylaminohydrolases (DDAH-1) and cationic amino acid transporter-1 (CAT-1) expression in patients with acute congestive heart failure

AIM

Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide (NO) which plays an important role in controlling vascular tone and regulates the contractile properties of cardiac myocytes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pharmacological treatment on symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA), ADMA and arginine plasma concentrations in patients with acute congestive heart failure (ACHF) through the evaluation of type-1 system cationic amino acid transporter-1/type 1 dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolases-1 (CAT-1/DDAH-1).

METHODS AND RESULTS

25 hospitalized cardiology patients with symptomatic acute congestive HF (NYHA Class III-IV) and impaired left ventricular (LV) function (ejection fraction<35%) were included in the study. ADMA, SDMA, and arginine plasma concentrations were assessed before and after pharmacological treatment by high performance liquid chromatography. All patients received an adequate pharmacological treatment for ACHF. ADMA and SDMA plasma levels were significantly higher after pharmacological treatment respect to baseline values (pre-treatment) (0.75 vs 0.48; 1.31 vs 1.03; p<0.01). Arginine plasma concentration was significantly lower after therapy respect to baseline values (0.78 vs 0.99; p<0.01). This is associated more with the modulation of DDAH-1 protein than with of CAT-1 system transport.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with ACHF, acute renal impairment function and the modulation of metabolism and extracellular transport by the DDAH-1/CAT-1 system determine high ADMA and SDMA levels after therapy for acute congestive heart failure.

Antiinflammatory effects in THP-1 cells treated with verbascoside

Verbascum thapsus commonly known as 'mullein' is part of a large family of Scrophulariaceae consisting of more than 360 species. From antiquity Verbascum thapsus has been used as a medicinal herb, it contains diverse polysaccharides, iroid glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, volatile oils and phenylentanoids. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) represents one of the three isoforms that produce nitric oxide using L-arginine as a substrate in response to an increase in superoxide anion activated by NF-kB. It is implicated in different pathophysiological events and its expression increases greatly during an inflammatory process, due to oxidative stress and the activation of the enzymes of the antioxidant network such as SOD, CAT and GPx.In this study an inflammatory state was reproduced by treating THP-1 cells (human myelomonocytic leukaemia) with pro-inflammatory stimuli, such as LPS and IFN-gamma, obtaining an up-regulation both in the expression and in the activity of iNOS. The aim of the work was to investigate the antiinflammatory action of verbascoside using a concentration of 100 mum. The results show a significant decrease of the expression and activity of iNOS, extracellular O(2) (-) production, SOD, CAT and GPx activity when the cells were treated with verbascoside. Based on these results it is hypothesized that verbascoside has antiinflammatory properties since it reduces the production of superoxide radicals and consequently reduces the activity of iNOS.

Dysregulation of chemo-cytokine production in schizophrenic patients versus healthy controls

Background

The exact cause of schizophrenia is not known, although several aetiological theories have been proposed for the disease, including developmental or neurodegenerative processes, neurotransmitter abnormalities, viral infection and immune dysfunction or autoimmune mechanisms. Growing evidence suggests that specific cytokines and chemokines play a role in signalling the brain to produce neurochemical, neuroendocrine, neuroimmune and behavioural changes. A relationship between inflammation and schizophrenia was supported by abnormal cytokines production, abnormal concentrations of cytokines and cytokine receptors in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid in schizophrenia. Since the neuropathology of schizophrenia has recently been reported to be closely associated with microglial activation we aimed to determined whether spontaneous or LPS-induced peripheral blood mononuclear cell chemokines and cytokines production is dysregulated in schizophrenic patients compared to healthy subjects. We enrolled 51 untreated first-episode schizophrenics (SC) and 40 healthy subjects (HC) and the levels of MCP-1, MIP-1α, IL-8, IL-18, IFN-γ and RANTES were determined by Elisa method in cell-free supernatants of PBMC cultures.

Results

In the simultaneous quantification we found significantly higher levels of constitutively and LPS-induced MCP-1, MIP-1α, IL-8 and IL-18, and lower RANTES and IFNγ levels released by PBMC of SC patients compared with HC. In ten SC patients receiving therapy with risperidone, olanzapine or clozapine basal and LPS-induced production of RANTES and IL-18 was increased, while both basal and LPS-induced MCP-1 production was decreased. No statistically significant differences were detected in serum levels after therapy.

Conclusion

The observation that in schizophrenic patients the PBMC production of selected chemo-cytokines is dysregulated reinforces the hypothesis that the peripheral cyto-chemokine network is involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. These preliminary, but promising data are supportive of the application of wider profiling approaches to the identification of biomarker as diagnostic tools for the analysis of psychiatric diseases.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha and Mast Cells: Revisited Study

Mast cells reside in connective tissues and are widely recognized as effector cells important in innate and acquired immunity. These cells are the only ones capable of storing preformed TNFα in their cytoplasmatic granules and release upon activation. TNF-alpha is a potent multifunctional cytokine involved in autoimmune diseases, cancer, allergy, and acute and chronic inflammation. In this study, we revisit the interrelationship between TNFα and mast cells.

IL-31 a Th2 cytokine involved in immunity and inflammation

Cytokines are immunal regulatory proteins, however they also play a relevant role in inflammatory diseases. IL-31 is a newly discovered cytokine expressed primarily in TH2 cells, introduced by activated CD4+ T cells. IL-31 is capable of inducing chemokines and other cytokines in several inflammatory diseases via its surface receptor. This cytokine is also produced by mast cells and mast cell line, suggesting a role in allergic diseases. In this editorial we revisit the biological role of IL-31 in immunity and inflammation.

Vitamins and Mast Cells

The immune system is a highly complex, intricately regulated group of cells whose integrated function is essential to health. The mast cell inflammatory response is characterized by an early phase with massive discharge of mediators stored in cytoplasmic secretory granules. Through multigranular/compound exocytosis and a late phase that involves generation of arachidonic acid metabolites and de novo synthesis of cytokines/chemokines and growth factors. Vitamins have been shown to have a protective effect on the body's immune cells. Vitamin C and E are necessary in allergic disease treatment where mast cells are involved. In addition, ascorbic acid and pyridoxine are useful compounds for the treatment of inflammatory disorder of the respiratory airways. Here we revisited the inter-relationship between vitamins and mast cells.

VEGF, substance P and stress, new aspects: a revisited study

Mast cells play an essential role in diverse physiological and pathological processes, such as atherosclerosis, malignancy, asthma, pulmonary fibrosis and arthritis, directly interact with bacteria, and appear to play a vital role in host defense against pathogens. Mast cells could be recruited in the inflammatory site, by MCP-1, RANTES and SCF, to selectively secrete proinflammatory molecules; these could include growth factors, histamine, which is mitogenic (H1) and an immunosuppressant (H2), neovascularization agents, such as heparin, IL-8, and VEGF, as well as proteases that could permit new blood vessel formation. Neurogenic inflammation involves vasodilation and plasma protein extravasation in response to neural stimulation. Upon stimulation, sensory neurons release Substance P and other neuropeptides and activate neurokinin-1 receptors leading to plasma protein extravasation from post-capillary venules. Substance P is a neuropeptide that is released from nerve endings in many tissues and plays an important role in immunological and inflammatory states, and it is also a mediator of tissue injury, asthma, arthritis, allergy and autoimmune diseases. SP-positive nerve fibers and mast cell contacts are increased by acute stress in mice leading to dermal mast cell degranulation. VEGF is produced by flammatory cells. IL-33 is the newest inflammatory member of the IL-1 cytokine family and we show here that SP can induce VEGF secretion from mast cells and IL-33 augments the effect of SP in VEGF transcription and translation protein.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and docking studies of N-substituted acetamidines as selective inhibitors of inducible nitric oxide synthase

New acetamidines structurally related to N-(3-(aminomethyl)benzyl)acetamidine (1, W1400) were designed as inhibitors of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Six compounds were found to be selective for iNOS over endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and among them, the most active and selective compound was the N-benzylacetamidine 2. A docking study was also performed to shed light on the effects of the structural modifications on the interaction of the designed inhibitors with the NOS.

Impact of RANTES, MCP-1 and IL-8 in mast cells

Chemokines are cytokines with chemotactic properties on inflammatory cells and other cell types. RANTES, MCP-1 and related molecules, constitute the C-C class of chemokine supergene family and a group of cytokines produced by hematopoietic cells, while IL-8 constitute the C-X-C class. The roles of most of these chemokines are not well known, although members of the chemokine family are inflammatory agents. The C-C chemokine plays a role in regulating Th-cell cytokine production and leukocyte trafficking. In this study we clearly show that RANTES and MCP-1 are mediators of acute inflammatory responses. Our report describes additional biological activities for RANTES, MCP-1, and IL-8, suggesting that these chemokines play a fundamental role in histamine and serotonin generation and cell function in mast cells.

Infections and mast cells

Mast cells play a role in various physiological functions: innate and acquired immunity, epithelium remodelling and proliferation, angiogenesis, cancer, inflammation and infections. Mast cells are activated by cross-linking of FcERI molecules, which are involved in the binding of multivalent antigens to the attached IgE molecules, resulting in a variety of responses including the immediate release of potent inflammatory mediators. In addition, mast cell biology consists in the capability to secrete preformed mediators which include biogenic amines and newly synthetized mediators, which include lipid-derived mediators and cytokines. It has been reported that parasite infections induce a systemic immunomodulatory network, including regulatory T cells, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, which might play a key role in the allergic phenotype. Here, in this article, we revisited the relationship between mast cells and infections.

Anti-inflammatory properties of the plant Verbascum mallophorum

Verbascum mallophorum is part of a large family of Scrophulariaceae consisting of more than 360 species. Verbascum mallophorums contains diverse polysaccharides, iroid glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, volatile oils and phenylentanoids. Verbascum has been used in popular medicine for treating wounds, chilblains, respiratory ailments, acne and arthritic disturbances. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) represents one of the three isoforms that produce nitric oxide using L-arginine as a substrate in response to an increase in superoxide anion activated by NF-kappaB. It is implicated in different pathophysiological events and its expression increases greatly during an inflammatory process due to oxidative stress. In our study we reproduced an inflammatory state by treating THP-1 cells (human myelomonocytic leukaemia) with pro-inflammatory stimuli, such as LPS and IFN-gamma, obtaining an up-regulation both in the expression and in the activity of iNOS. The aim of our work is to investigate the possible antiinflammatory action of verbascoside extract from Verbascum mallophorum using a concentration of 100 muM. Our results show a significant decrease in the expression and activity of iNOS and extracellular O2- when cells were treated with verbascoside. Based on these results we hypothesize that verbascoside extract from Verbascum mallophorum has anti-inflammatory properties since it reduces the production of superoxide radicals and consequently reduces the activity of iNOS.

Stimulation of CCL2 (MCP-1) and CCL2 mRNA by substance P in LAD2 human mast cells

Chemokines are cytokines with chemotactic properties on inflammatory cells and other cell types. Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), which is also called monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), is a potent chemotactic molecule that attracts lymphocytes, monocytes, mast cells, and memory T cells, but not neutrophils. CCL2/MCP-1 represents a link between the activation of monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils, mast cells, and eosinophils in inflammatory disorders, such as the late-phase allergic reaction. This C-C chemokine also plays a role in regulating Th-cell cytokine production and leukocyte trafficking. Laboratory of allergic diseases (LAD) cells is the first reported human mast cell line that closely resembles a primary culture of CD34+-derived human mast cells. These cells were cultured in vitro and treated with different concentrations of substance P (SP) for the production of CCL2/MCP-1. We used calcium ionophore as a positive control for stimulating transcription and translation of CCL2/MCP-1. The stimulation of SP on CCL2/MCP-1 was statistically significant (P < 0.05) compared with the control (untreated cells). In this study, we determined the expression and secretion of CCL2/MCP-1 from SP-activated LAD2 human mast cells in vitro. The levels of CCL2/MCP-1 from SP-activated LAD2 human mast cells were higher at 10 microM and at 18 h incubation compared with controls. This effect was also revealed on CCL2/MCP-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, as determined by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Our data suggest that SP is an important neurotransmitter that can stimulate the chemokine CCL2, which plays a fundamental role in inflammation by recruiting inflammatory cells to specific cites.

IL-32: a newly-discovered proinflammatory cytokine

IL-32, a newly-discovered proinflammatory cytokine that activates the p38MAPK and NF-kappaB pathways, is an important player in innate and adaptive immune response. IL-32, a cytokine produced mainly by T, natural killer, and epithelial cells induces significant amounts of TNFalpha and MIP-2 and increases the production of both cytokines in a dose-dependent manner. IL-32 has been implicated in inflammatory disorders, mycobacterium tuberculosis infections, inflammatory bowel disease, and influenza A virus infection, as well as in some autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis and Crohn?s disease and in human stomach cancer, human lung cancer and breast cancer tissues. Moreover, it has been reported that IL-32 has pro-inflammatory effects on myeloid cells and causes the differentiation of osteoclast precursors into multinucleated cells expressing specific osteoclast markers. We recently found that human IL-32 has the capacity to provoke histamine release in human-derived cord blood mast cells (HDCBMC), but not in LAD 2 cells nor in rat peritoneal mast cells (RPMC), showing that IL-32 may be specie specific and act more in mature human mast cells (HDCBMC) than in transformed mast cells (LAD 2 cells). Certainly, IL-32 is another potent proinflammatory cytokine, however, the specific role of this newly-discovered protein in the network of cytokine biology remains to be determined.