Longitudinal neurodevelopmental and neuromotor outcome in congenital diaphragmatic hernia patients in the first 3 years of life

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to longitudinally evaluate the neurodevelopmental (ND) outcome in congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) survivors during the first 3 years of life.

STUDY DESIGN

The study cohort consists of 47 CDH survivors that were enrolled in our prospective, follow-up program between July 2004 and September 2010, and underwent serial ND evaluations during the first 3 years of life. ND outcomes were evaluated using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID)-II or BSID-III. Persistent ND impairment was defined as a score that remained 79 for the cognitive, language and psychomotor domains at the most recent follow-up visit compared with the first assessment.

RESULT

The median age at first and last evaluation was 8 (range, 5 to 15) and 29 (range, 23 to 36) months, respectively. During the follow-up, ND scores improved to average in 17%, remained average in 60%, remained delayed in 10%, improved from severely delayed to mildly delayed in 2% and deteriorated from average to delayed in 15%. Motor scores improved to average in 26%, remained average in 55%, remained delayed in 8% and improved from severely delayed to mildly delayed in 11%. Intrathoracic liver position (P=0.004), preterm delivery (P=0.03), supplemental O2 requirement at day of life 30 (P=0.007), age at discharge (P=0.03), periventricular leukomalacia (PVL; P=0.004) and initial neuromuscular hypotonicity (P=0.01) were associated with persistent motor delays. No relationship was found between patient's characteristics and the risk of persistent cognitive and language delays.

CONCLUSION

(1) The majority of children with CDH are functioning in the average range by early preschool age, (2) most children who had early delays showed improvement in their ND outcome, (3) children showing delays in all the three domains were the least likely to show improvement and (4) CDH severity appears to be predictive of persistent psychomotor delays.

Assessment of early pulmonary function abnormalities in giant omphalocele survivors

PURPOSE

Infants with giant omphalocele (GO) are at increased risk for persistent respiratory insufficiency, yet information regarding the systematic assessment of their lung function is limited. We performed a group of pulmonary function tests (PFTs) including spirometry, fractional lung volume measurements, assessment of bronchodilator responsiveness, and passive respiratory mechanics in GO survivors during infancy and early childhood to evaluate the nature and degree of pulmonary dysfunction.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Between July 2004 and June 2008, 30 consecutive GO survivors were enrolled in our interdisciplinary follow-up program. Forty-seven percent (14/30) underwent PFT during follow-up evaluation using the raised volume rapid thoracic compression technique to measure forced expiratory flows and bronchodilator responsiveness, body plethysmography to calculate lung volumes, and the single breath occlusion technique to measure passive mechanics of the respiratory system.

RESULTS

The mean age at PFT assessment was 19.3 ± 19.7 months (range, 1.0-58). Mean forced vital capacity and mean forced expiratory volume in the first 0.5 second were significantly reduced compared with published normative values (P = .03 and P < .01, respectively). Total lung capacity was significantly reduced (P < .001), whereas functional residual capacity, residual volume, and residual volume to total lung capacity ratio were within the normative range (P = .21, P = .34, and P = .48, respectively). Among the 46% who demonstrated significant bronchodilator responsiveness, there were greater increases in the mean percentage changes in flow at 25% to 75% (P = .01), flow at 75% (P < .001), and flow at 85% (P < .001) compared with those participants that did not respond. Specific compliance was reduced, whereas specific conductance increased, compared with published normal results.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormalities of pulmonary function in GO survivors include lung volume restriction without airway obstruction, an increased likelihood of airway hyperresponsivness, and reduced respiratory system specific compliance. Early recognition of pulmonary functional impairment in GO survivors could help to develop targeted treatment strategies to reduce the risk of subsequent pulmonary morbidity.

Fetal MRI-calculated total lung volumes in the prediction of short-term outcome in giant omphalocele: preliminary findings

OBJECTIVE

To determine the value of fetal MRI-calculated total lung volumes (TLV) in the prediction of short-term outcome in patients with giant omphalocele (GO).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We reviewed all cases of GO undergoing fetal MRI after 21 weeks' gestation and receiving postnatal care at our institution between 2003 and 2010. Observed/expected (O/E) TLV was calculated using age-matched TLV normograms [Radiology 2001;219:236-241]. Postnatal outcomes were stratified based on O/E TLV above or below 50% of expected.

RESULTS

Seventeen GO cases fulfilled the entry criteria. The mean age at fetal MRI evaluation was 25.8 ± 4.8 weeks' gestation. The mean GO TLV (21.0 ± 13.2) was lower than age-matched population norms (p < 0.001), resulting in a mean O/E TLV of 52.3 ± 16.8%. The mean gestational age at delivery was 36.8 ± 1.6 weeks. Overall survival was 94%. Fourteen (88%) infants underwent staged reduction, and 2 underwent silver sulfadiazine treatment and delayed repair. Infants with ≤50% of predicted O/E TLV (n = 11, 65%) had lower Apgar scores at birth (p = 0.03), prolonged ventilatory support (p = 0.004), delayed oral intake (p = 0.03), and longer hospitalization (p = 0.03) compared to patients with ≥50% of expected O/E TLV. Two infants (both O/E TLV <50%) required tracheostomy placement.

CONCLUSION

In the assessment of GO fetuses, MRI-based O/E TLV of <50% was predictive of increased postnatal morbidity.

Early neurodevelopmental outcome of infants with high-risk fetal lung lesions

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the neurodevelopmental outcome of infants with high-risk fetal lung lesions defined as (1) requiring fetal intervention and/or ex utero intrapartum therapy (EXIT), or (2) acute respiratory decompensation postnatally necessitating emergent resection within 48 h of life.

METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of 13 consecutive patients with high-risk fetal lung lesions who were enrolled in our prospective interdisciplinary follow-up program. Neurodevelopmental status was evaluated using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III (children ≤3 years, n = 12), or the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-III (children ≥4 years, n = 1).

RESULTS

Eight children (62%) underwent prenatal intervention (EXIT, n = 6; fetal resection, n = 1; intrauterine shunt placement, n = 1), and 5 (38%) required emergent resection postnatally. Median age at evaluation was 25 months (range: 5-80). Average scores for cognitive development were found in all children assessed under 3 years of age. The one child who was tested for cognitive ability at 6 years of age scored in the borderline range of intellectual functioning. For language outcome, 15% scored above average, 54% scored within the average range, and 31% had mild deficits. Overall, 77% scored within the average range for neuromotor outcome, while 23% scored within the mildly delayed range. None of the children had severe delays. Cognitive, language, and psychomotor scores were similar between both groups. Hypotonicity was found in 23%. Autism was suspected in one child who underwent an EXIT procedure and was postnatally diagnosed with mosaic trisomy 18.

CONCLUSION

The majority of children with high-risk fetal lung lesions have age-appropriate neurodevelopmental scores.

Neurodevelopmental outcome of infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia prospectively enrolled in an interdisciplinary follow-up program

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH).

METHODS

Between June 2004 and September 2007, 41 CDH survivors were prospectively enrolled in an interdisciplinary follow-up program. Neurodevelopmental status was evaluated using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II (prior 2006, n = 9), the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III (after 2006, n = 27), or the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III (children older than 4 years, n = 5). Scores were grouped as average, mildly delayed, and severely delayed by standard deviation intervals (115-85, 71-84, <70), and mixed if average and mildly delayed in either cognitive or language.

RESULTS

Median age at last assessment was 24 months (range, 6-62). Average, mixed, mildly delayed, and severely delayed scores for neurocognitive and language skills were found in 49%, 19%, 17%, and 15%, respectively. Psychomotor scores were normal, mildly delayed, and severely delayed in 46%, 23%, and 31%, respectively. Autism was present in 7%. Abnormal muscle tonicity was found in 51% (49% hypotonic, 2% hypertonic). Multivariate risk factors for borderline or delayed neurodevelopmental, neurocognitive, and/or psychomotor outcome were intrathoracic liver position (P = .02), presence of a right-sided CDH (P = .02), extracorporeal membrane oxygenation need (P < .001), Gore-Tex patch repair (P = .02), O(2) requirement at 30 days of life (P < .01), and hypotonicity (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

The prospective evaluation in an interdisciplinary follow-up program uncovered striking morbidities in neurodevelopmental status in approximately half of the CDH infants. The most common neurologic sequelae are neuromuscular hypotonicity and psychomotor dysfunction. Patient-specific factors are important determinants of adverse neurologic outcome.

Prospective, interdisciplinary follow-up of children with prenatally diagnosed giant omphalocele: short-term neurodevelopmental outcome

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to determine the short-term neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with giant omphalocele (GO).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between January 2002 and December 2007, 31 consecutive infants with GO received prenatal and postnatal care at our institution. Overall survival was 81% (25/31). Twenty (80%) of the survivors were enrolled in a prospective interdisciplinary follow-up program. Fifteen were at least 6 months of age and received detailed neurodevelopmental evaluation using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II (BSID-II [before 2006, n = 3]) or BSID-III (after 2006, n = 12). Scores were grouped as average, mildly delayed, and severely delayed by SD intervals (115-85, 71-84, <70). Scores were considered mixed if cognitive or language skills were in different ranges.

RESULTS

Median age at evaluation was 12 months (range, 6-26 months). Average, mildly delayed, and severely delayed scores for cognitive and language skills were found in 6 (40%), 2 (13%), and 6 (40%), respectively. One child had mixed scores (severely delayed for cognitive and mildly delayed for language skills). Motor scores were normal, mildly delayed, and severely delayed in 6 (40%), 2 (13%), and 7 (47%), respectively. The neuromuscular examination was abnormal in 8 patients (62%). Five (33%) scored within the average range, whereas 6 (40%) demonstrated severe delays for cognitive, language, and motor outcome. Of the 6 children with severe delays, 2 (13% of total) have autism, 4 required tracheostomy, and 1 was diagnosed with Williams syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of GO is associated with deficits in developmental achievements in most of the affected infants ranging from mild to profound delays. These findings underscore the importance of early and standardized neurodevelopmental evaluation throughout childhood for all survivors with GO. Larger studies are warranted for risk factor stratification.

In utero meconium passage in fetuses and newborns with myelomeningocele

OBJECT

The authors retrospectively investigated whether midgestational fetal myelomeningocele (fMMC) repair alters intrauterine meconium exposure.

METHODS

Prior to the National Institutes of Health Management of Myelomeningocele Study, 54 fetuses underwent fMMC repair at the authors' institution. Forty-six fMMC sacs were available for pathological examination and 53 MMC sacs from postnatally repaired MMCs (pMMCs) were available for comparison. The presence and distribution of meconium were blindly evaluated using a grading system defined as follows: absent (no meconium present), mild (<10 meconium-positive histiocytes [MPHs]/hpf), moderate (10-25 MPHs/hpf), and severe (>25 MPHs/hpf). Hall's bile stain was used to confirm meconium and Prussian blue and Fontana Masson stains to exclude hemosiderin and melanin, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared to pMMCs (79%), meconium histiocytosis was less prevalent in fMMC sacs (57%; p=0.017). Meconium staining was completely absent in 43% of the fMMC sacs. Mild meconium histiocytosis was found in 35% fMMC and 61% pMMC sacs (p=0.035). There was no statistical difference between groups with moderate and severe meconium histiocytosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Meconium passage in MMCs can occur early in fetal life. Fetal MMC repair may reduce the duration of meconium exposure, thereby potentially limiting the toxic injury to the vulnerable neural elements.

Reversal of hindbrain herniation after maternal-fetal surgery for myelomeningocele subsequently impacts on brain stem function

The aim of our study was to delineate whether the reversal of hindbrain herniation (HH) following fetal myelomeningocele (fMMC) closure subsequently reduces the incidence and severity of HH-associated brainstem dysfunction (BSD). Prior to the NIH-sponsored Management of Myelomeningocele Study (MOMS) trial, 54 children underwent fMMC closure at our institution. Forty-eight (89%) families participated in a structured survey focusing on HH-associated BSD (e.g., apnea, neurogenic dysphagia [ND], gastro-esophageal reflux disease [GERD], neuro-ophthalmologic disturbances [NOD]). Median age at follow-up was 72 months (range: 46-98). Fifty-percent required shunting. HH-related symptoms were completely absent in 15 (63%) non-shunted and 10 (42%) shunted children (P=0.15). No HH-related death occurred and none developed severe persistent cyanotic apnea. ND was reported in 2 (8%) non-shunted and 9 (38%) shunted infants (P=0.03). Mild GERD (medically managed) developed in 2 (8%) without and 6 (25%) with shunt placement (P=0.24). NOD was found in 6 (25%) and 13 (54%) of non-shunted and shunted children, respectively (P=0.07). The majority of fMMC children developed no or only mild BSD at follow-up. Our data support the hypothesis that neurodevelopmental deficits associated with MMC are at least partially acquired and that reversal of HH following fMMC surgery may help to reduce the incidence and severity of BSD.

Intradural inclusion cysts following in utero closure of myelomeningocele: clinical implications and follow-up findings

OBJECT

The goal in this study was to evaluate the incidence and clinical implications of the development of cutaneously derived intradural inclusion cysts (ICs) following fetal myelomeningocele (fMMC) closure.

METHODS

Retrospective databases and responses to a parental questionnaire were reviewed to determine the incidence, clinical presentation, and outcomes of fMMCs in children in whom ICs developed at follow-up.

RESULTS

Prior to the National Institutes of Health (NIH)-sponsored Management of Myelomeningocele Study (MOMS), 54 patients underwent fMMC closure at the authors' institution. Sixteen (30%) presented with symptomatic tethered cord syndrome (TCS) at a median age of 27 months (range 4-93 months). Ten (63%) of the 16 (19% of the total) developed TCS in association with an intradural IC. In 9 (90%) of 10 patients, the IC was seen on preoperative MR imaging, and in 1 it was found during surgery. Four additional children (7% of the total) with evidence of an IC on surveillance MR imaging are currently asymptomatic at 94, 84, 60, and 60 months of age, respectively. All but 1 (an L-3 level lesion) IC developed in infants with L-4 and L-5 defects. After cyst removal, 6 children are asymptomatic at a median follow-up of 36 months (range 12-63 months). Following IC removal, 4 children lost normal bladder function and now require clean intermittent catheterization, and 1 lost normal leg function and now requires a walking aid for ambulation. Histologically, 8 lesions were dermoid, 1 was an epidermoid, and 1 was a mixed dermoid-epidermoid IC. Three patients developed another IC and required its removal at 24, 39, and 51 months, respectively. One required another tethered cord release within 57 months after IC removal.

CONCLUSIONS

Cutaneously derived intradural ICs can develop following fMMC surgery. Deterioration of bladder function, risk of recurrence, and loss of lower-extremity function appear to be the most important long-term complications of IC in children with fMMCs. The ongoing NIH-sponsored MOMS may help determine whether children with fMMC are at increased risk of IC development compared with children treated with postnatal MMC closure. Parents seeking fMMC closure should be informed about the possibility of IC formation and the potential clinical consequences.

Correction of hindbrain herniation and anatomy of the vermis after in utero repair of myelomeningocele in sheep

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

In utero repair of myelomeningocele (MMC) in humans spares distal neurologic function, reverses the hindbrain herniation component of the Arnold-Chiari II malformation (ACM), and reduces the rate of postnatal shunt placement. The authors hypothesized that extravasation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the lumbar spinal cord results in herniation. This hypothesis was tested by assessing the impact of a spinal cord myelotomy on hindbrain anatomy in fetal sheep.

METHODS

A MMC lesion was created surgically in 34 fetal sheep at 75 days' gestation by excision of the L1-L5 lamina, the exposed dura, and surrounding tissues. A lumbar level myelotomy was performed in 28 of the 34 fetuses to open the central canal of the spinal cord to enhance egress of CSF through the MMC defect and potentially induce hindbrain herniation. At 102 days' gestation, a repair of the MMC lesion was performed in 14 fetuses with a myelotomy. Fetuses underwent autopsy at 102, 114, 120, or 140 days' gestation. Control animals underwent 2 unrelated fetal surgical procedures at approximately 70 and 110 days' gestation. The incidence of hindbrain herniation, ventricular size, biparietal diameter, brain weight, and brain anatomy were compared between the different animal groups.

RESULTS

After MMC creation, significant cerebellar tonsillar herniation was observed in 85% of fetuses that underwent creation of a myelotomy; none of the lambs without a myelotomy (n = 6) had hindbrain herniation. At autopsy, cerebellar tonsillar herniation was present at the time of MMC repair (102 days' gestation), 2 weeks after MMC repair, but was reversed 3 weeks post-MMC repair. At birth, tonsillar herniation was absent, and hindbrain anatomy was restored in 88% of the fetuses with a myelotomy that underwent fetal MMC repair. No significant differences in brain weight and ventricular size was observed between animals with and without MMC repair.

CONCLUSIONS

Adding a myelotomy to the sheep model of MMC leads to hindbrain herniation that is similar to that observed in the human ACM. These experiments support the hypothesis that leakage of CSF through the exposed central canal alters the normal CSF hydrodynamics, resulting in cerebellar tonsillar herniation. Fetal MMC repair reverses hindbrain herniation and restores gross anatomy of the vermis.

A new look at myelomeningoceles: functional level, vertebral level, shunting, and the implications for fetal intervention

OBJECTIVE

Previous reports have suggested that 80% to 85% of patients who have a myelomeningocele (MMC) and undergo surgical repair after birth develop hydrocephalus and require the placement of a ventricular shunt. However, the rate of shunting as a function of spinal level is not well established. We sought to determine the distribution of postnatally repaired MMC lesions as characterized by both functional and radiologic assessment, as well as the incidence of shunting when patients were categorized according to these 2 methods.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 297 patients who were born with open MMCs and followed in the spina bifida clinic at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia was performed. The presence or absence of a shunt was determined for each patient. Functional spinal level was determined by the best-recorded neurologic examination and vertebral level by spine radiographs.

RESULTS

The overall rate of ventricular shunting was 81%. The level of the lesion significantly affected the incidence of shunting, with more cephalad lesions correlating with higher rates. This was true both for functional and radiologic categorizations. A significantly higher shunt rate was found among patients with sacral lesions when categorized by radiologic rather than functional criteria. In 86% of patients, the functional level was found to be equal to or higher (worse) than the radiologic level.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes the natural history of ventricular shunting in MMC patients with relation to both radiologic and functional criteria. Fetal MMC closure is being performed in some centers in an attempt to decrease the incidence of shunting and to improve leg function in selected patients. The present data may serve as a comparison group and aid in the design and analysis of a prospective trial to assess the efficacy of this new procedure.

Effects of post-mortem autolysis on the detection of rabies virus genomic RNA and mRNA in mouse brain by using in situ hybridization

The effects of post-mortem autolysis were studied on the detection of rabies virus RNA in the brains of mice with experimental rabies by using in situ hybridization (ISH). The brains of CVS-infected mice were subjected to autolytic periods in situ of up to 72 h. ISH was performed with 3H-labelled RNA probes for rabies virus glycoprotein gene genomic RNA and mRNA. During the post-mortem period there was progressive loss of signals for genomic RNA and mRNA, which was greater for mRNA. ISH signals in perikarya also changed for genomic RNA from a multifocal to a diffuse distribution during the post-mortem period. Rabies virus antigen was better preserved during the autolytic period. Effects of the agonal state, degradation of RNA by ribonucleases, and diffusion of RNA out of cells prior to fixation could explain the loss of ISH signals in post-mortem tissues.