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Carney PS, Thurman ST. Self-plagiarism and conference papers: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2018; 35:ED4. [PMID: 30462087 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.35.000ed4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney and Topical Editor Samuel T. Thurman discuss self-plagiarism and conference papers.
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South FA, Liu YZ, Bower AJ, Xu Y, Carney PS, Boppart SA. Wavefront measurement using computational adaptive optics. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2018; 35. [PMID: 29522050 PMCID: PMC5915320 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.35.000466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In many optical imaging applications, it is necessary to correct for aberrations to obtain high quality images. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides access to the amplitude and phase of the backscattered optical field for three-dimensional (3D) imaging samples. Computational adaptive optics (CAO) modifies the phase of the OCT data in the spatial frequency domain to correct optical aberrations without using a deformable mirror, as is commonly done in hardware-based adaptive optics (AO). This provides improvement of image quality throughout the 3D volume, enabling imaging across greater depth ranges and in highly aberrated samples. However, the CAO aberration correction has a complicated relation to the imaging pupil and is not a direct measurement of the pupil aberrations. Here we present new methods for recovering the wavefront aberrations directly from the OCT data without the use of hardware adaptive optics. This enables both computational measurement and correction of optical aberrations.
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Carney PS. Getting it right at JOSA A: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2018; 35:ED3. [PMID: 29400887 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.35.000ed3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney discusses the importance of corrections to the published literature.
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Carney PS. A new year, new editors, and new honors: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2018; 35:ED1-ED2. [PMID: 29328102 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.35.000ed1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney congratulates recent awardees and introduces the Journal's newest Topical Editors.
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Carney PS. Two years of tutorials: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2017; 34:ED5-ED6. [PMID: 29240099 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.34.000ed5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney gives an update on JOSA A tutorials.
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Rasskazov IL, Spegazzini N, Carney PS, Bhargava R. Dielectric Sphere Clusters as a Model to Understand Infrared Spectroscopic Imaging Data Recorded from Complex Samples. Anal Chem 2017; 89:10813-10818. [PMID: 28895722 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b02168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the infrared (IR) spectral response of materials as a function of their morphology is not only of fundamental importance but also of contemporary practical need in the analysis of biological and synthetic materials. While significant work has recently been reported in understanding the spectra of particles with well-defined geometries, we report here on samples that consist of collections of particles. First, we theoretically model the importance of multiple scattering effects and computationally predict the impact of local particles' environment on the recorded IR spectra. Both monodisperse and polydisperse particles are considered in clusters with various degrees of packing. We show that recorded spectra are highly dependent on the cluster morphology and size of particles but the origin of this dependence is largely due to the scattering that depends on morphology and not absorbance that largely depends on the volume of material. The effect of polydispersity is to reduce the fine scattering features in the spectrum, resulting in a closer resemblance to bulk spectra. Fourier transform-IR (FT-IR) spectra of clusters of electromagnetically coupled poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) spheres with wavelength-scale diameters were recorded and compared to simulated results. Measured spectra agreed well with those predicted. Of note, when PMMA spheres occupy a volume greater than 18% of the focal volume, the recorded IR spectrum becomes almost independent of the cluster's morphological changes. This threshold, where absorbance starts to dominate the signal, exactly matches the percolation threshold for hard spheres and quantifies the transition between the single particle and bulk behavior. Our finding enables an understanding of the spectral response of structured samples and points to appropriate models for recovering accurate chemical information from in IR microspectroscopy data.
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Creech-Eakman MJ, Carney PS, Buscher DF, Shao M. Synthetic aperture imaging in astronomy and aerospace: introduction. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2017; 34:SAI1-SAI2. [PMID: 28463328 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.34.00sai1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Aperture synthesis methods allow the reconstruction of images with the angular resolutions exceeding that of extremely large monolithic apertures by using arrays of smaller apertures together in combination. In this issue we present several papers with techniques relevant to amplitude interferometry, laser radar, and intensity interferometry applications.
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Liu YZ, South FA, Xu Y, Carney PS, Boppart SA. Computational optical coherence tomography [Invited]. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 8:1549-1574. [PMID: 28663849 PMCID: PMC5480564 DOI: 10.1364/boe.8.001549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Revised: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has become an important imaging modality with numerous biomedical applications. Challenges in high-speed, high-resolution, volumetric OCT imaging include managing dispersion, the trade-off between transverse resolution and depth-of-field, and correcting optical aberrations that are present in both the system and sample. Physics-based computational imaging techniques have proven to provide solutions to these limitations. This review aims to outline these computational imaging techniques within a general mathematical framework, summarize the historical progress, highlight the state-of-the-art achievements, and discuss the present challenges.
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Berisha S, van Dijk T, Bhargava R, Carney PS, Mayerich D. BIM-Sim: Interactive Simulation of Broadband Imaging Using Mie Theory. FRONTIERS IN PHYSICS 2017; 5:5. [PMID: 29170738 PMCID: PMC5697799 DOI: 10.3389/fphy.2017.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the structure of a scattered electromagnetic (EM) field is critical to improving the imaging process. Mechanisms such as diffraction, scattering, and interference affect an image, limiting the resolution, and potentially introducing artifacts. Simulation and visualization of scattered fields thus plays an important role in imaging science. However, EM fields are high-dimensional, making them time-consuming to simulate, and difficult to visualize. In this paper, we present a framework for interactively computing and visualizing EM fields scattered by micro and nano-particles. Our software uses graphics hardware for evaluating the field both inside and outside of these particles. We then use Monte-Carlo sampling to reconstruct and visualize the three-dimensional structure of the field, spectral profiles at individual points, the structure of the field at the surface of the particle, and the resulting image produced by an optical system.
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Carney PS. Congratulations and changes to the JOSA A team: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2017; 34:ED3-ED4. [PMID: 28157855 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.34.000ed3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney introduces new Topical Editors Antigone Marino and Alessandro Rizzi.
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Scott Carney P. The professional team at JOSA A: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2017; 34:ED1-ED2. [PMID: 28059220 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.34.000ed1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney closes a year of celebration and recognizes the staff who have produced the Journal for 100 years.
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Carney PS. Image science at JOSA A: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2016; 33:ED8. [PMID: 27828112 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.33.000ed8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney discusses the scope of image science in JOSA A and introduces new topical editor Amit Ashok.
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Xu Y, Darga D, Smid J, Zysk AM, Teh D, Boppart SA, Carney PS. Filtering for unwrapping noisy Doppler optical coherence tomography images for extended microscopic fluid velocity measurement range. OPTICS LETTERS 2016; 41:4024-7. [PMID: 27607963 PMCID: PMC5458774 DOI: 10.1364/ol.41.004024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, we report the first application of two phase denoising algorithms to Doppler optical coherence tomography (DOCT) velocity maps. When combined with unwrapping algorithms, significantly extended fluid velocity dynamic range is achieved. Instead of the physical upper bound, the fluid velocity dynamic range is now limited by noise level. We show comparisons between physical simulated ideal velocity maps and the experimental results of both algorithms. We demonstrate unwrapped DOCT velocity maps having a peak velocity nearly 10 times the theoretical measurement range.
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South FA, Liu YZ, Carney PS, Boppart SA. Computed Optical Interferometric Imaging: Methods, Achievements, and Challenges. IEEE JOURNAL OF SELECTED TOPICS IN QUANTUM ELECTRONICS : A PUBLICATION OF THE IEEE LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS SOCIETY 2016; 22:6800911. [PMID: 27795663 PMCID: PMC5082437 DOI: 10.1109/jstqe.2015.2493962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional high-resolution optical imaging systems are generally restricted by the trade-off between resolution and depth-of-field as well as imperfections in the imaging system or sample. Computed optical interferometric imaging is able to overcome these longstanding limitations using methods such as interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy (ISAM) and computational adaptive optics (CAO) which manipulate the complex interferometric data. These techniques correct for limited depth-of-field and optical aberrations without the need for additional hardware. This paper aims to outline these computational methods, making them readily available to the research community. Achievements of the techniques will be highlighted, along with past and present challenges in implementing the techniques. Challenges such as phase instability and determination of the appropriate aberration correction have been largely overcome so that imaging of living tissues using ISAM and CAO is now possible. Computed imaging in optics is becoming a mature technology poised to make a significant impact in medicine and biology.
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Xu Y, Liu YZ, Boppart SA, Carney PS. Automated interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy and computational adaptive optics for improved optical coherence tomography. APPLIED OPTICS 2016; 55:2034-41. [PMID: 26974799 PMCID: PMC5458786 DOI: 10.1364/ao.55.002034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we introduce an algorithm framework for the automation of interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy (ISAM). Under this framework, common processing steps such as dispersion correction, Fourier domain resampling, and computational adaptive optics aberration correction are carried out as metrics-assisted parameter search problems. We further present the results of this algorithm applied to phantom and biological tissue samples and compare with manually adjusted results. With the automated algorithm, near-optimal ISAM reconstruction can be achieved without manual adjustment. At the same time, the technical barrier for the nonexpert using ISAM imaging is also significantly lowered.
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Carney PS. The dedicated volunteers of JOSA A: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2016; 33:ED3-ED6. [PMID: 26974948 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.33.000ed3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Editor-in-Chief P. Scott Carney introduces the JOSA A topical editors.
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Carney PS. Celebrating the new and old: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2016; 33:ED1-ED2. [PMID: 26831596 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.33.000ed1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
New editor-in-chief P. Scott Carney makes some opening remarks and comments on special OSA Centennial activities this year at JOSA A.
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Gori F, Carney PS. Introducing JOSA A tutorials: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2015; 32:ED3. [PMID: 26831399 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.32.000ed3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We describe the new tutorial article type in detail and give some background on the reasons for its introduction.
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Shemonski ND, South FA, Liu YZ, Adie SG, Carney PS, Boppart SA. Computational Aberration Correction for Human Retinal Imaging. OPTICS AND PHOTONICS NEWS 2015; 2015:43. [PMID: 28572714 PMCID: PMC5449121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
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South FA, Liu YZ, Xu Y, Shemonski ND, Carney PS, Boppart SA. Polarization-sensitive interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy. APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 2015; 107:211106. [PMID: 26648593 PMCID: PMC4662671 DOI: 10.1063/1.4936236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional optical microscopy suffers from the well-known compromise between transverse resolution and depth-of-field. This is true for both structural imaging methods and their functional extensions. Interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy (ISAM) is a solution to the 3D coherent microscopy inverse problem that provides depth-independent transverse resolution. We demonstrate the extension of ISAM to polarization sensitive imaging, termed polarization-sensitive interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy (PS-ISAM). This technique is the first functionalization of the ISAM method and provides improved depth-of-field for polarization-sensitive imaging. The basic assumptions of polarization-sensitive imaging are explored, and refocusing of birefringent structures is experimentally demonstrated. PS-ISAM enables high-resolution volumetric imaging of birefringent materials and tissue.
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Zysk AM, Chen K, Gabrielson E, Tafra L, May Gonzalez EA, Canner JK, Schneider EB, Cittadine AJ, Carney PS, Boppart SA, Tsuchiya K, Sawyer K, Jacobs LK. Intraoperative Assessment of Final Margins with a Handheld Optical Imaging Probe During Breast-Conserving Surgery May Reduce the Reoperation Rate: Results of a Multicenter Study. Ann Surg Oncol 2015; 22. [PMID: 26202553 PMCID: PMC4839389 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-015-4665-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A multicenter, prospective, blinded study was performed to test the feasibility of using a handheld optical imaging probe for the intraoperative assessment of final surgical margins during breast-conserving surgery (BCS) and to determine the potential impact on patient outcomes. METHODS Forty-six patients with early-stage breast cancer (one with bilateral disease) undergoing BCS at two study sites, the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Anne Arundel Medical Center, were enrolled in this study. During BCS, cavity-shaved margins were obtained and the final margins were examined ex vivo in the operating room with a probe incorporating optical coherence tomography (OCT) hardware and interferometric synthetic aperture microscopy (ISAM) image processing. Images were interpreted after BCS by three physicians blinded to final pathology-reported margin status. Individual and combined interpretations were assessed. Results were compared to conventional postoperative histopathology. RESULTS A total of 2,191 images were collected and interpreted from 229 shave margin specimens. Of the eight patients (17 %) with positive margins (0 mm), which included invasive and in situ diseases, the device identified all positive margins in five (63%) of them; reoperation could potentially have been avoided in these patients. Among patients with pathologically negative margins (>0 mm), an estimated mean additional tissue volume of 10.7 ml (approximately 1% of overall breast volume) would have been unnecessarily removed due to false positives. CONCLUSIONS Intraoperative optical imaging of specimen margins with a handheld probe potentially eliminates the majority of reoperations.
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Mayerich D, van Dijk T, Walsh MJ, Schulmerich MV, Carney PS, Bhargava R. On the importance of image formation optics in the design of infrared spectroscopic imaging systems. Analyst 2015; 139:4031-6. [PMID: 24936526 DOI: 10.1039/c3an01687k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Infrared spectroscopic imaging provides micron-scale spatial resolution with molecular contrast. While recent work demonstrates that sample morphology affects the recorded spectrum, considerably less attention has been focused on the effects of the optics, including the condenser and objective. This analysis is extremely important, since it will be possible to understand effects on recorded data and provides insight for reducing optical effects through rigorous microscope design. Here, we present a theoretical description and experimental results that demonstrate the effects of commonly-employed cassegranian optics on recorded spectra. We first combine an explicit model of image formation and a method for quantifying and visualizing the deviations in recorded spectra as a function of microscope optics. We then verify these simulations with measurements obtained from spatially heterogeneous samples. The deviation of the computed spectrum from the ideal case is quantified via a map which we call a deviation map. The deviation map is obtained as a function of optical elements by systematic simulations. Examination of deviation maps demonstrates that the optimal optical configuration for minimal deviation is contrary to prevailing practice in which throughput is maximized for an instrument without a sample. This report should be helpful for understanding recorded spectra as a function of the optics, the analytical limits of recorded data determined by the optical design, and potential routes for optimization of imaging systems.
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Gori F, Carney PS. Policy, procedures, and goals at JOSA A: editorial. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2015; 32:ED1-ED2. [PMID: 26367305 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.32.000ed1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Editorial policy and procedures are described for the benefit of potential authors and reviewers. These policies are described in the context of our goals for the journal.
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Deutsch B, Reddy R, Mayerich D, Bhargava R, Carney PS. Compositional prior information in computed infrared spectroscopic imaging. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2015; 32:1126-1131. [PMID: 26367047 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.32.001126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Compositional prior information is used to bridge a gap in the theory between optical coherence tomography (OCT), which provides high-resolution structural images by neglecting spectral variation, and imaging spectroscopy, which provides only spectral information without significant regard to structure. A constraint is proposed in which it is assumed that a sample is composed of N distinct materials with known spectra, allowing the structural and spectral composition of the sample to be determined with a number of measurements on the order of N. We present a forward model for a sample with heterogeneities along the optical axis and show through simulation that the N-species constraint allows unambiguous inversion of Fourier transform interferometric data within the spatial frequency passband of the optical system. We then explore the stability and limitations of this model and extend it to a general 3D heterogeneous sample.
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Chng BXK, van Dijk T, Bhargava R, Carney PS. Enhancement and extinction effects in surface-enhanced stimulated Raman spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:21348-55. [PMID: 25780806 DOI: 10.1039/c4cp05089d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
We address the optical physics of surface-enhanced stimulated Raman spectroscopy (SESRS) from the microscopic to macroscopic scales to provide experimental design criteria in colloidal-suspension SESRS. The nanoparticles that provide local field enhancement also extinguish the Raman signal. We compute the total Raman signal detected from a suspension of Raman-active molecules and nanoparticles due to the cumulative effects of enhancement and extinction and find optimum operating parameters for pump frequency and nanoparticle concentration.
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