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Dan M, Bae Y, Pittman TA, Yokel RA. Alternating magnetic field-induced hyperthermia increases iron oxide nanoparticle cell association/uptake and flux in blood-brain barrier models. Pharm Res 2015; 32:1615-25. [PMID: 25377069 PMCID: PMC4803069 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1561-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are being investigated for brain cancer therapy because alternating magnetic field (AMF) activates them to produce hyperthermia. For central nervous system applications, brain entry of diagnostic and therapeutic agents is usually essential. We hypothesized that AMF-induced hyperthermia significantly increases IONP blood-brain barrier (BBB) association/uptake and flux. METHODS Cross-linked nanoassemblies loaded with IONPs (CNA-IONPs) and conventional citrate-coated IONPs (citrate-IONPs) were synthesized and characterized in house. CNA-IONP and citrate-IONP BBB cell association/uptake and flux were studied using two BBB Transwell(®) models (bEnd.3 and MDCKII cells) after conventional and AMF-induced hyperthermia exposure. RESULTS AMF-induced hyperthermia for 0.5 h did not alter CNA-IONP size but accelerated citrate-IONP agglomeration. AMF-induced hyperthermia for 0.5 h enhanced CNA-IONP and citrate-IONP BBB cell association/uptake. It also enhanced the flux of CNA-IONPs across the two in vitro BBB models compared to conventional hyperthermia and normothermia, in the absence of cell death. Citrate-IONP flux was not observed under these conditions. AMF-induced hyperthermia also significantly enhanced paracellular pathway flux. The mechanism appears to involve more than the increased temperature surrounding the CNA-IONPs. CONCLUSIONS Hyperthermia induced by AMF activation of CNA-IONPs has potential to increase the BBB permeability of therapeutics for the diagnosis and therapy of various brain diseases.
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Yokel RA, Harris WR, Spilling CD, Abramov VP, Lone JM, Kuhn RJ. A Filtration System That Greatly Reduces Aluminum in Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP Used to Prepare Parenteral Nutrition Solutions. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 2014; 19:189-95. [PMID: 25309149 DOI: 10.5863/1551-6776-19.3.189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The study objective was to reduce aluminum (Al) in Calcium Gluconate Injection, US Pharmacopeia (USP) used in the preparation of parenteral nutrition (PN) solutions. METHODS A flow-through filter containing an immobilized chelator that complexes Al from Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP as it flows through the filter was designed, refined by design modifications, and extensively tested. When a small-volume parenteral vial containing 100 mL of Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP is connected on the inlet side of the filter, and the outlet side is connected to an evacuated receiving vial, the filtered solution is drawn into the receiving vial. This constitutes a complete system to remove Al from Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP. RESULTS The extent of Al removal is flow rate dependent. At a flow rate of 1 mL/min approximately 85% of the Al was removed from calcium gluconate solution. PN solutions have been reported to deliver 15 to 23 mcg/kg/day Al to neonates. Given that Calcium Gluconate Injection, USP provides 85% of the Al in neonatal PN solutions, removal of 85% of the Al from this source was calculated to reduce Al delivered to most neonates to <5 mcg/kg/day. CONCLUSIONS A point-of-use, self-contained, single-use, disposable, Al-complexing filter has been created. It was calculated to reduce Al delivered in PN solutions by 72%, resulting in daily Al delivery below the level that results in Al accumulation associated with central nervous system and bone toxicity to all but the smallest (<1 kg) infants.
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Yokel RA, Hussain S, Garantziotis S, Demokritou P, Castranova V, Cassee FR. The Yin: An adverse health perspective of nanoceria: uptake, distribution, accumulation, and mechanisms of its toxicity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. NANO 2014; 1:406-428. [PMID: 25243070 PMCID: PMC4167411 DOI: 10.1039/c4en00039k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
This critical review evolved from a SNO Special Workshop on Nanoceria panel presentation addressing the toxicological risks of nanoceria: accumulation, target organs, and issues of clearance; how exposure dose/concentration, exposure route, and experimental preparation/model influence the different reported effects of nanoceria; and how can safer by design concepts be applied to nanoceria? It focuses on the most relevant routes of human nanoceria exposure and uptake, disposition, persistence, and resultant adverse effects. The pulmonary, oral, dermal, and topical ocular exposure routes are addressed as well as the intravenous route, as the latter provides a reference for the pharmacokinetic fate of nanoceria once introduced into blood. Nanoceria reaching the blood is primarily distributed to mononuclear phagocytic system organs. Available data suggest nanoceria's distribution is not greatly affected by dose, shape, or dosing schedule. Significant attention has been paid to the inhalation exposure route. Nanoceria distribution from the lung to the rest of the body is less than 1% of the deposited dose, and from the gastrointestinal tract even less. Intracellular nanoceria and organ burdens persist for at least months, suggesting very slow clearance rates. The acute toxicity of nanoceria is very low. However, large/accumulated doses produce granuloma in the lung and liver, and fibrosis in the lung. Toxicity, including genotoxicity, increases with exposure time; the effects disappear slowly, possibly due to nanoceria's biopersistence. Nanoceria may exert toxicity through oxidative stress. Adverse effects seen at sites distal to exposure may be due to nanoceria translocation or released biomolecules. An example is elevated oxidative stress indicators in the brain, in the absence of appreciable brain nanoceria. Nanoceria may change its nature in biological environments and cause changes in biological molecules. Increased toxicity has been related to greater surface Ce3+, which becomes more relevant as particle size decreases and the ratio of surface area to volume increases. Given its biopersistence and resulting increased toxicity with time, there is a risk that long-term exposure to low nanoceria levels may eventually lead to adverse health effects. This critical review provides recommendations for research to resolve some of the many unknowns of nanoceria's fate and adverse effects.
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Willhite CC, Karyakina NA, Yokel RA, Yenugadhati N, Wisniewski TM, Arnold IMF, Momoli F, Krewski D. Systematic review of potential health risks posed by pharmaceutical, occupational and consumer exposures to metallic and nanoscale aluminum, aluminum oxides, aluminum hydroxide and its soluble salts. Crit Rev Toxicol 2014; 44 Suppl 4:1-80. [PMID: 25233067 PMCID: PMC4997813 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.934439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Aluminum (Al) is a ubiquitous substance encountered both naturally (as the third most abundant element) and intentionally (used in water, foods, pharmaceuticals, and vaccines); it is also present in ambient and occupational airborne particulates. Existing data underscore the importance of Al physical and chemical forms in relation to its uptake, accumulation, and systemic bioavailability. The present review represents a systematic examination of the peer-reviewed literature on the adverse health effects of Al materials published since a previous critical evaluation compiled by Krewski et al. (2007) . Challenges encountered in carrying out the present review reflected the experimental use of different physical and chemical Al forms, different routes of administration, and different target organs in relation to the magnitude, frequency, and duration of exposure. Wide variations in diet can result in Al intakes that are often higher than the World Health Organization provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), which is based on studies with Al citrate. Comparing daily dietary Al exposures on the basis of "total Al"assumes that gastrointestinal bioavailability for all dietary Al forms is equivalent to that for Al citrate, an approach that requires validation. Current occupational exposure limits (OELs) for identical Al substances vary as much as 15-fold. The toxicity of different Al forms depends in large measure on their physical behavior and relative solubility in water. The toxicity of soluble Al forms depends upon the delivered dose of Al(+3) to target tissues. Trivalent Al reacts with water to produce bidentate superoxide coordination spheres [Al(O2)(H2O4)(+2) and Al(H2O)6 (+3)] that after complexation with O2(•-), generate Al superoxides [Al(O2(•))](H2O5)](+2). Semireduced AlO2(•) radicals deplete mitochondrial Fe and promote generation of H2O2, O2 (•-) and OH(•). Thus, it is the Al(+3)-induced formation of oxygen radicals that accounts for the oxidative damage that leads to intrinsic apoptosis. In contrast, the toxicity of the insoluble Al oxides depends primarily on their behavior as particulates. Aluminum has been held responsible for human morbidity and mortality, but there is no consistent and convincing evidence to associate the Al found in food and drinking water at the doses and chemical forms presently consumed by people living in North America and Western Europe with increased risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neither is there clear evidence to show use of Al-containing underarm antiperspirants or cosmetics increases the risk of AD or breast cancer. Metallic Al, its oxides, and common Al salts have not been shown to be either genotoxic or carcinogenic. Aluminum exposures during neonatal and pediatric parenteral nutrition (PN) can impair bone mineralization and delay neurological development. Adverse effects to vaccines with Al adjuvants have occurred; however, recent controlled trials found that the immunologic response to certain vaccines with Al adjuvants was no greater, and in some cases less than, that after identical vaccination without Al adjuvants. The scientific literature on the adverse health effects of Al is extensive. Health risk assessments for Al must take into account individual co-factors (e.g., age, renal function, diet, gastric pH). Conclusions from the current review point to the need for refinement of the PTWI, reduction of Al contamination in PN solutions, justification for routine addition of Al to vaccines, and harmonization of OELs for Al substances.
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Wang B, Jackson GS, Yokel RA, Grulke EA. Applying accelerator mass spectrometry for low-level detection of complex engineered nanoparticles in biological media. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 97:81-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Graham UM, Tseng MT, Jasinski JB, Yokel RA, Unrine JM, Davis BH, Dozier AK, Hardas SS, Sultana R, Grulke EA, Butterfield DA. In Vivo Processing of Ceria Nanoparticles inside Liver: Impact on Free-Radical Scavenging Activity and Oxidative Stress. Chempluschem 2014; 79:1083-1088. [PMID: 26322251 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201402080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cytotoxicity of ceria ultimately lies in its electronic structure, which is defined by the crystal structure, composition, and size. Despite previous studies focused on ceria uptake, distribution, biopersistance, and cellular effects, little is known about its chemical and structural stability and solubility once sequestered inside the liver. Mechanisms will be presented that elucidate the in vivo transformation in the liver. In vivo processed ceria reveals a particle-size effect towards the formation of ultrafines, which represent a second generation of ceria. A measurable change in the valence reduction of the second-generation ceria can be linked to an increased free-radical scavenging potential. The in vivo processing of the ceria nanoparticles in the liver occurs in temporal relation to the brain cellular and protein clearance responses that stem from the ceria uptake. This information is critical to establish a possible link between cellular processes and the observed in vivo transformation of ceria. The temporal linkage between the reversal of the pro-oxidant effect (brain) and ceria transformation (liver) suggests a cause-effect relationship.
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Hardas SS, Sultana R, Warrier G, Dan M, Wu P, Grulke EA, Tseng MT, Unrine JM, Graham UM, Yokel RA, Butterfield DA. Rat hippocampal responses up to 90 days after a single nanoceria dose extends a hierarchical oxidative stress model for nanoparticle toxicity. Nanotoxicology 2013; 8 Suppl 1:155-66. [DOI: 10.3109/17435390.2013.868059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Dan M, Cochran DB, Yokel RA, Dziubla TD. Binding, transcytosis and biodistribution of anti-PECAM-1 iron oxide nanoparticles for brain-targeted delivery. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81051. [PMID: 24278373 PMCID: PMC3835573 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Characterize the flux of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM-1) antibody-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its biodistribution in vitro and in vivo. Methods Anti-PECAM-1 IONPs and IgG IONPs were prepared and characterized in house. The binding affinity of these nanoparticles was investigated using human cortical microvascular endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3). Flux assays were performed using a hCMEC/D3 BBB model. To test their immunospecificity index and biodistribution, nanoparticles were given to Sprague Dawley rats by intra-carotid infusion. The capillary depletion method was used to elucidate their distribution between the BBB and brain parenchyma. Results Anti-PECAM-1 IONPs were ∼130 nm. The extent of nanoparticle antibody surface coverage was 63.6±8.4%. Only 6.39±1.22% of labeled antibody dissociated from IONPs in heparin-treated whole blood over 4 h. The binding affinity of PECAM-1 antibody (KD) was 32 nM with a maximal binding (Bmax) of 17×105 antibody molecules/cell. Anti-PECAM-1 IONP flux across a hCMEC/D3 monolayer was significantly higher than IgG IONP's with 31% of anti-PECAM-1 IONPs in the receiving chamber after 6 h. Anti-PECAM-1 IONPs showed higher concentrations in lung and brain, but not liver or spleen, than IgG IONPs after infusion. The capillary depletion method showed that 17±12% of the anti-PECAM-1 IONPs crossed the BBB into the brain ten minutes after infusion. Conclusions PECAM-1 antibody coating significantly increased IONP flux across the hCMEC/D3 monolayer. In vivo results showed that the PECAM-1 antibody enhanced BBB association and brain parenchymal accumulation of IONPs compared to IgG. This research demonstrates the benefit of anti-PECAM-1 IONPs for association and flux across the BBB into the brain in relation to its biodistribution in peripheral organs. The results provide insight into potential application and toxicity concerns of anti-PECAM-1 IONPs in the central nervous system.
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Tseng MT, Fu Q, Lor K, Fernandez-Botran GR, Deng ZB, Graham U, Butterfield DA, Grulke EA, Yokel RA. Persistent Hepatic Structural Alterations Following Nanoceria Vascular Infusion in the Rat. Toxicol Pathol 2013; 42:984-96. [DOI: 10.1177/0192623313505780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the long-term effects and possible toxicity of nanoceria, a widely utilized commercial metal oxide, is of particular importance as it is poised for development as a therapeutic agent based on its autocatalytic redox behavior. We show here evidence of acute and subacute adverse hepatic responses, after a single infusion of an aqueous dispersion of 85 mg/kg, 30 nm nanoceria into Sprague Dawley rats. Light and electron microscopic evidence of avid uptake of nanoceria by Kupffer cells was detected as early as 1 hr after infusion. Biopersistent nanoceria stimulated cluster of differentiation 3+ lymphocyte proliferation that intermingled with nanoceria-containing Kupffer cells to form granulomata that were observed between days 30 and 90. Ultrastructural tracking of ceria nanoparticles revealed aggregated nanoceria in phagolysosomes. An increased formation of small nanoceria over time observed in the latter suggests possible dissolution and precipitation of nanoceria. However, the pathway for nanoceria metabolism/secretion remains unclear. Although frank hepatic necrosis was not observed, the retention of nanoceria increased hepatic apoptosis acutely, this persisted to day 90. These findings, together with our earlier reports of 5-nm ceria-induced liver toxicity, provide additional guidance for nanoceria development as a therapeutic agent and for its risk assessment.
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MacPhail RC, Grulke EA, Yokel RA. Assessing nanoparticle risk poses prodigious challenges. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 5:374-87. [PMID: 23568806 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Risk assessment is used both formally and informally to estimate the likelihood of an adverse event occurring, for example, as a consequence of exposure to a hazardous chemical, drug, or other agent. Formal risk assessments in government regulatory agencies have a long history of practice. The precision with which risk can be estimated is inevitably constrained, however, by uncertainties arising from the lack of pertinent data. Developing accurate risk assessments for nanoparticles and nanoparticle-containing products may present further challenges because of the unique properties of the particles, uncertainties about their composition and the populations exposed to them, and how these may change throughout the particle's life cycle. This review introduces the evolving practice of risk assessment followed by some of the uncertainties that need to be addressed to improve our understanding of nanoparticle risks. Given the clarion call for life-cycle assessments of nanoparticles, an unprecedented degree of national and international coordination between scientific organizations, regulatory agencies, and stakeholders will be required to achieve this goal.
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Hardas SS, Sultana R, Warrier G, Dan M, Florence RL, Wu P, Grulke EA, Tseng MT, Unrine JM, Graham UM, Yokel RA, Butterfield DA. Rat brain pro-oxidant effects of peripherally administered 5nm ceria 30 days after exposure. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:1147-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Dan M, Tseng MT, Wu P, Unrine JM, Grulke EA, Yokel RA. Brain microvascular endothelial cell association and distribution of a 5 nm ceria engineered nanomaterial. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:4023-36. [PMID: 22888240 PMCID: PMC3414084 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s32526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Ceria engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have current commercial applications and both neuroprotective and toxic effects. Our hypothesis is that ceria ENMs can associate with brain capillary cells and/or cross the blood–brain barrier. Methods: An aqueous dispersion of ∼5 nm ceria ENM was synthesized and characterized in house. Its uptake space in the Sprague Dawley rat brain was determined using the in situ brain perfusion technique at 15 and 20 mL/minute flow rates; 30, 100, and 500 μg/mL ceria perfused for 120 seconds at 20 mL/minute; and 30 μg/mL perfused for 20, 60, and 120 seconds at 20 mL/minute. The capillary depletion method and light and electron microscopy were used to determine its capillary cell and brain parenchymal association and localization. Results: The vascular space was not significantly affected by brain perfusion flow rate or ENM, demonstrating that this ceria ENM did not influence blood–brain barrier integrity. Cerium concentrations, determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, were significantly higher in the choroid plexus than in eight brain regions in the 100 and 500 μg/mL ceria perfusion groups. Ceria uptake into the eight brain regions was similar after 120-second perfusion of 30, 100, and 500 μg ceria/mL. Ceria uptake space significantly increased in the eight brain regions and choroid plexus after 60 versus 20 seconds, and it was similar after 60 and 120 seconds. The capillary depletion method showed 99.4% ± 1.1% of the ceria ENM associated with the capillary fraction. Electron microscopy showed the ceria ENM located on the endothelial cell luminal surface. Conclusion: Ceria ENM association with brain capillary endothelial cells saturated between 20 and 60 seconds and ceria ENM brain uptake was not diffusion-mediated. During the 120-second ceria ENM perfusion, ceria ENM predominately associated with the surface of the brain capillary cells, providing the opportunity for its cell uptake or redistribution back into circulating blood.
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Yokel RA, Wu P, Tseng MT, MacPhail RC, Graham UM, Dan M, Unrine JM, Sultana R, Hardas SS, Butterfield DA, Grulke EA. Nanoceria distribution, biotransformation, and safety/toxicity in the rat. FASEB J 2012. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.26.1_supplement.851.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Yokel RA, Au TC, MacPhail R, Hardas SS, Butterfield DA, Sultana R, Goodman M, Tseng MT, Dan M, Haghnazar H, Unrine JM, Graham UM, Wu P, Grulke EA. Distribution, Elimination, and Biopersistence to 90 Days of a Systemically Introduced 30 nm Ceria-Engineered Nanomaterial in Rats. Toxicol Sci 2012; 127:256-68. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfs067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Tseng MT, Lu X, Duan X, Hardas SS, Sultana R, Wu P, Unrine JM, Graham U, Butterfield DA, Grulke EA, Yokel RA. Alteration of hepatic structure and oxidative stress induced by intravenous nanoceria. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 260:173-82. [PMID: 22373796 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Revised: 02/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Beyond the traditional use of ceria as an abrasive, the scope of nanoceria applications now extends into fuel cell manufacturing, diesel fuel additives, and for therapeutic intervention as a putative antioxidant. However, the biological effects of nanoceria exposure have yet to be fully defined, which gave us the impetus to examine its systemic biodistribution and biological responses. An extensively characterized nanoceria (5 nm) dispersion was vascularly infused into rats, which were terminated 1 h, 20 h or 30 days later. Light and electron microscopic tissue characterization was conducted and hepatic oxidative stress parameters determined. We observed acute ceria nanoparticle sequestration by Kupffer cells with subsequent bioretention in parenchymal cells as well. The internalized ceria nanoparticles appeared as spherical agglomerates of varying dimension without specific organelle penetration. In hepatocytes, the agglomerated nanoceria frequently localized to the plasma membrane facing bile canaliculi. Hepatic stellate cells also sequestered nanoceria. Within the sinusoids, sustained nanoceria bioretention was associated with granuloma formations comprised of Kupffer cells and intermingling CD3⁺ T cells. A statistically significant elevation of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) level was seen at 1 and 20 h, but subsided by 30 days after ceria administration. Further, elevated apoptosis was observed on day 30. These findings, together with increased hepatic protein carbonyl levels on day 30, indicate ceria-induced hepatic injury and oxidative stress, respectively. Such observations suggest a single vascular infusion of nanoceria can lead to persistent hepatic retention of particles with possible implications for occupational and therapeutic exposures.
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Dan M, Wu P, Grulke EA, Graham UM, Unrine JM, Yokel RA. Ceria-engineered nanomaterial distribution in, and clearance from, blood: size matters. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2012; 7:95-110. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aims: Characterize different sized ceria-engineered nanomaterial (ENM) distribution in, and clearance from, blood (compared to the cerium ion) following intravenous infusion. Materials & Methods: Cerium (Ce) was quantified in whole blood, serum and clot (the formed elements) up to 720 h. Results: Traditional pharmacokinetic modeling showed best fit for 5 nm ceria ENM and the cerium ion. Ceria ENMs larger than 5 nm were rapidly cleared from blood. After initially declining, whole blood 15 and 30 nm ceria increased (results that have not been well-described by traditional pharmacokinetic modeling). The cerium ion and 5 and 55 nm ceria did not preferentially distribute into serum or clot, a mixture of cubic and rod shaped ceria was predominantly in the clot, and 15 and 30 nm ceria migrated into the clot over 4 h. Conclusion: Reticuloendothelial organs may not readily recognize five nm ceria. Increased ceria distribution into the clot over time may be due to opsonization. Traditional pharmacokinetic analysis was not very informative. Ceria ENM pharmacokinetics are quite different from the cerium ion.
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Boyes WK, Chen R, Chen C, Yokel RA. The neurotoxic potential of engineered nanomaterials. Neurotoxicology 2011; 33:902-10. [PMID: 22198707 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2011] [Revised: 12/08/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The expanding development and production of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have diverse and far-reaching potential benefits in consumer products, food, drugs, medical devices and for enhancing environmental cleanup and remediation. The knowledge of potential implications of ENMs, including the potential for inadvertent exposures and adverse neurotoxic consequences, is lagging behind their development. A potential risk for neurotoxicity arises if exposure leads to systemic absorption and distribution to the nervous system. This paper is the summary of a symposium entitled Neurotoxicity Potential of Engineered Nanomaterials presented at the 2011 Xi'an International Neurotoxicology Conference held June 5-9 in Xi'an China. The following topics were featured in the symposium: the toxicokinetics of engineered nanomaterials; differential uptake of nanoceria in brain and peripheral organs; translocation into the brain and potential damage following nanoparticle exposure; and the retina as a potential site of nanomaterial phototoxicity. Each of these topics is discussed fully in sections of the manuscript. The promising benefits of ENM technology can be best realized if the potential risks are first understood and then minimized in product and system designs.
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Yokel RA, MacPhail RC. Engineered nanomaterials: exposures, hazards, and risk prevention. J Occup Med Toxicol 2011; 6:7. [PMID: 21418643 PMCID: PMC3071337 DOI: 10.1186/1745-6673-6-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology presents the possibility of revolutionizing many aspects of our lives. People in many settings (academic, small and large industrial, and the general public in industrialized nations) are either developing or using engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) or ENM-containing products. However, our understanding of the occupational, health and safety aspects of ENMs is still in its formative stage. A survey of the literature indicates the available information is incomplete, many of the early findings have not been independently verified, and some may have been over-interpreted. This review describes ENMs briefly, their application, the ENM workforce, the major routes of human exposure, some examples of uptake and adverse effects, what little has been reported on occupational exposure assessment, and approaches to minimize exposure and health hazards. These latter approaches include engineering controls such as fume hoods and personal protective equipment. Results showing the effectiveness - or lack thereof - of some of these controls are also included. This review is presented in the context of the Risk Assessment/Risk Management framework, as a paradigm to systematically work through issues regarding human health hazards of ENMs. Examples are discussed of current knowledge of nanoscale materials for each component of the Risk Assessment/Risk Management framework. Given the notable lack of information, current recommendations to minimize exposure and hazards are largely based on common sense, knowledge by analogy to ultrafine material toxicity, and general health and safety recommendations. This review may serve as an overview for health and safety personnel, management, and ENM workers to establish and maintain a safe work environment. Small start-up companies and research institutions with limited personnel or expertise in nanotechnology health and safety issues may find this review particularly useful.
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Hardas SS, Butterfield DA, Sultana R, Tseng MT, Dan M, Florence RL, Unrine JM, Graham UM, Wu P, Grulke EA, Yokel RA. Brain distribution and toxicological evaluation of a systemically delivered engineered nanoscale ceria. Toxicol Sci 2010; 116:562-76. [PMID: 20457660 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered nanoscale ceria is used as a diesel fuel catalyst. Little is known about its mammalian central nervous system effects. The objective of this paper is to characterize the biodistribution of a 5-nm citrate-stabilized ceria dispersion from blood into brain and its pro- or antioxidant effects. An approximately 4% aqueous ceria dispersion was iv infused into rats (0, 100, and up to 250 mg/kg), which were terminated after 1 or 20 h. Ceria concentration, localization, and chemical speciation in the brain were assessed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, light and electron microscopy (EM), and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Pro- or antioxidative stress effects were assessed as protein carbonyls, 3-nitrotyrosine, and protein-bound 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal in hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum. Glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, manganese superoxide dismutase, and catalase levels and activities were measured in hippocampus. Catalase levels and activities were also measured in cortex and cerebellum. Na fluorescein and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were given iv as blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity markers. Mortality was seen after administration of 175-250 mg ceria/kg. Twenty hours after infusion of 100 mg ceria/kg, brain HRP was marginally elevated. EM and EELS revealed mixed Ce(III) and Ce(IV) valence in the freshly synthesized ceria in vitro and in ceria agglomerates in the brain vascular compartment. Ceria was not seen in microvascular endothelial or brain cells. Ceria elevated catalase levels at 1 h and increased catalase activity at 20 h in hippocampus and decreased catalase activity at 1 h in cerebellum. Compared with a previously studied approximately 30-nm ceria, this ceria was more toxic, was not seen in the brain, and produced little oxidative stress effect to the hippocampus and cerebellum. The results are contrary to the hypothesis that a smaller engineered nanomaterial would more readily permeate the BBB.
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Al-Ghananeem AM, Saeed H, Florence R, Yokel RA, Malkawi AH. Intranasal drug delivery of didanosine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for brain targeting; an attractive route against infections caused by aids viruses. J Drug Target 2009; 18:381-8. [DOI: 10.3109/10611860903483396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Yokel RA. Manganese Flux Across the Blood–Brain Barrier. Neuromolecular Med 2009; 11:297-310. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-009-8101-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Yokel RA, Florence RL, Unrine JM, Tseng MT, Graham UM, Wu P, Grulke EA, Sultana R, Hardas SS, Butterfield DA. Biodistribution and oxidative stress effects of a systemically-introduced commercial ceria engineered nanomaterial. Nanotoxicology 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/17435390902974496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Dean A, Ferlin MG, Brun P, Castagliuolo I, Yokel RA, Badocco D, Pastore P, Venzo A, Bombi GG, Di Marco VB. 1,6-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid and 4-hydroxy-2-methyl-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid as new possible chelating agents for iron and aluminium. Dalton Trans 2009:1815-24. [DOI: 10.1039/b819148d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Dey S, Bakthavatchalu V, Tseng MT, Wu P, Florence RL, Grulke EA, Yokel RA, Dhar SK, Yang HS, Chen Y, St Clair DK. Interactions between SIRT1 and AP-1 reveal a mechanistic insight into the growth promoting properties of alumina (Al2O3) nanoparticles in mouse skin epithelial cells. Carcinogenesis 2008; 29:1920-9. [PMID: 18676681 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgn175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The physicochemical properties of nanomaterials differ from those of the bulk material of the same composition. However, little is known about the underlying effects of these particles in carcinogenesis. The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanisms involved in the carcinogenic properties of nanoparticles using aluminum oxide (Al(2)O(3)/alumina) nanoparticles as the prototype. Well-established mouse epithelial JB6 cells, sensitive to neoplastic transformation, were used as the experimental model. We demonstrate that alumina was internalized and maintained its physicochemical composition inside the cells. Alumina increased cell proliferation (53%), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) levels, cell viability and growth in soft agar. The level of manganese superoxide dismutase, a key mitochondrial antioxidant enzyme, was elevated, suggesting a redox signaling event. In addition, the levels of reactive oxygen species and the activities of the redox sensitive transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) and a longevity-related protein, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), were increased. SIRT1 knockdown reduces DNA synthesis, cell viability, PCNA levels, AP-1 transcriptional activity and protein levels of its targets, JunD, c-Jun and BcL-xl, more than controls do. Immunoprecipitation studies revealed that SIRT1 interacts with the AP-1 components c-Jun and JunD but not with c-Fos. The results identify SIRT1 as an AP-1 modulator and suggest a novel mechanism by which alumina nanoparticles may function as a potential carcinogen.
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