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Daiko H, Hara H, Ogawa H, Hori K, Mizusawa J, Ozawa S, Takagi M, Tanaka M, Baba H, Shirakawa Y, Tsuda M, Nakagawa S, Takeuchi H, Abe T, Ito Y, Kojima T, Kadota T, Fukuda H, Kato K, Kitagawa Y. TRIANgLE study (JCOG1510): A phase III study of tri-modality combination therapy with induction docetaxel (DOC), cisplatin (CDDP), 5-fluorouracil (FU) (DCF) vs definitive chemoradiotherapy (dCRT) for locally advanced unresectable squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the thoracic esophagus. Ann Oncol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdy282.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Cauchoix M, Chow PKY, van Horik JO, Atance CM, Barbeau EJ, Barragan-Jason G, Bize P, Boussard A, Buechel SD, Cabirol A, Cauchard L, Claidière N, Dalesman S, Devaud JM, Didic M, Doligez B, Fagot J, Fichtel C, Henke-von der Malsburg J, Hermer E, Huber L, Huebner F, Kappeler PM, Klein S, Langbein J, Langley EJG, Lea SEG, Lihoreau M, Lovlie H, Matzel LD, Nakagawa S, Nawroth C, Oesterwind S, Sauce B, Smith EA, Sorato E, Tebbich S, Wallis LJ, Whiteside MA, Wilkinson A, Chaine AS, Morand-Ferron J. The repeatability of cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 373:20170281. [PMID: 30104426 PMCID: PMC6107569 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioural and cognitive processes play important roles in mediating an individual's interactions with its environment. Yet, while there is a vast literature on repeatable individual differences in behaviour, relatively little is known about the repeatability of cognitive performance. To further our understanding of the evolution of cognition, we gathered 44 studies on individual performance of 25 species across six animal classes and used meta-analysis to assess whether cognitive performance is repeatable. We compared repeatability (R) in performance (1) on the same task presented at different times (temporal repeatability), and (2) on different tasks that measured the same putative cognitive ability (contextual repeatability). We also addressed whether R estimates were influenced by seven extrinsic factors (moderators): type of cognitive performance measurement, type of cognitive task, delay between tests, origin of the subjects, experimental context, taxonomic class and publication status. We found support for both temporal and contextual repeatability of cognitive performance, with mean R estimates ranging between 0.15 and 0.28. Repeatability estimates were mostly influenced by the type of cognitive performance measures and publication status. Our findings highlight the widespread occurrence of consistent inter-individual variation in cognition across a range of taxa which, like behaviour, may be associated with fitness outcomes.This article is part of the theme issue 'Causes and consequences of individual differences in cognitive abilities'.
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O'Dea RE, Lagisz M, Jennions MD, Nakagawa S. Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3777. [PMID: 30254267 PMCID: PMC6156605 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06292-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fewer women than men pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), despite girls outperforming boys at school in the relevant subjects. According to the 'variability hypothesis', this over-representation of males is driven by gender differences in variance; greater male variability leads to greater numbers of men who exceed the performance threshold. Here, we use recent meta-analytic advances to compare gender differences in academic grades from over 1.6 million students. In line with previous studies we find strong evidence for lower variation among girls than boys, and of higher average grades for girls. However, the gender differences in both mean and variance of grades are smaller in STEM than non-STEM subjects, suggesting that greater variability is insufficient to explain male over-representation in STEM. Simulations of these differences suggest the top 10% of a class contains equal numbers of girls and boys in STEM, but more girls in non-STEM subjects.
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Nakagawa S, Okada A, Hamatani Y, Takahama H, Amaki M, Hasegawa T, Sugano Y, Kanzaki H, Kusano K, Yasuda S, Izumi C. 5920Usefulness of SCD risk prediction model among various phenotypes of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in Japanese population. Eur Heart J 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehy566.5920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Poller W, Gast M, Nakagawa S, Haas J, Nath N, Mueller C, Hirose T, Rauch U, Skurk C, Rauch B, Blankenberg S, Kuss A, Meder B, Landmesser U, Zeller T. P3198Long noncoding RNA NEAT1 controls ROS production in macrophages and is suppressed in post-myocardial infarction patients. Eur Heart J 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehy563.p3198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Nakagawa S, Lagisz M. Visualizing unbiased and biased unweighted meta-analyses. J Evol Biol 2018; 29:1914-1916. [PMID: 27397701 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Shiraishi Y, Imai K, Yamashita YI, Nakao Y, Nakagawa S, Okabe H, Nitta H, Chikamoto A, Baba H. Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic: Segmental arterial mediolysis of pancreaticoduodenal artery accompanied by acute pancreatitis and duodenal obstruction. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 33:1564-1564. [PMID: 29691909 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.14138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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de Villemereuil P, Morrissey MB, Nakagawa S, Schielzeth H. Fixed-effect variance and the estimation of repeatabilities and heritabilities: issues and solutions. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:621-632. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Glawar AFG, Martínez RF, Ayers BJ, Hollas MA, Ngo N, Nakagawa S, Kato A, Butters TD, Fleet GWJ, Jenkinson SF. Structural essentials for β-N-acetylhexosaminidase inhibition by amides of prolines, pipecolic and azetidine carboxylic acids. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 14:10371-10385. [PMID: 27735004 DOI: 10.1039/c6ob01549b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper explores the computer modelling aided design and synthesis of β-N-acetylhexosaminidase inhibitors along with their applicability to human disease treatment through biological evaluation in both an enzymatic and cellular setting. We investigated the importance of individual stereocenters, variations in structure-activity relationships along with factors influencing cell penetration. To achieve these goals we modified nitrogen heterocycles in terms of ring size, side chains present and ring nitrogen derivatization. By reducing the inhibitor interactions with the active site down to the essentials we were able to determine that besides the established 2S,3R trans-relationship, the presence and stereochemistry of the CH2OH side chain is of crucial importance for activity. In terms of cellular penetration, N-butyl side chains favour cellar uptake, while hydroxy- and carboxy-group bearing sidechains on the ring nitrogen retarded cellular penetration. Furthermore we show an early proof of principle study that β-N-acetylhexosaminidase inhibitors can be applicable to use in a potential anti-invasive anti-cancer strategy.
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Senior AM, Nakagawa S, Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ, Noble DWA. Dietary restriction increases variability in longevity. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2017.0057. [PMID: 28298596 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nutritional environments, particularly those experienced during early life, are hypothesized to affect longevity. A recent cross-taxa meta-analysis found that, depending upon circumstance, average longevity may be increased or decreased by early-life dietary restriction. Unstudied are the effects of diet during development on among-individual variance in longevity. Here, we address this issue using emerging methods for meta-analysis of variance. We found that, in general, standard deviation (s.d.) in longevity is around 8% higher under early-life dietary restriction than a standard diet. The effects became especially profound when dietary insults were experienced prenatally (s.d. increased by 29%) and/or extended into adulthood (s.d. increased by 36.6%). Early-life dietary restriction may generate variance in longevity as a result of increased variance in resource acquisition or allocation, but the mechanisms underlying these largely overlooked patterns clearly warrant elucidation.
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Winney IS, Schroeder J, Nakagawa S, Hsu YH, Simons MJP, Sánchez-Tójar A, Mannarelli ME, Burke T. Heritability and social brood effects on personality in juvenile and adult life-history stages in a wild passerine. J Evol Biol 2017; 31:75-87. [PMID: 29044885 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
How has evolution led to the variation in behavioural phenotypes (personalities) in a population? Knowledge of whether personality is heritable, and to what degree it is influenced by the social environment, is crucial to understanding its evolutionary significance, yet few estimates are available from natural populations. We tracked three behavioural traits during different life-history stages in a pedigreed population of wild house sparrows. Using a quantitative genetic approach, we demonstrated heritability in adult exploration, and in nestling activity after accounting for fixed effects, but not in adult boldness. We did not detect maternal effects on any traits, but we did detect a social brood effect on nestling activity. Boldness, exploration and nestling activity in this population did not form a behavioural syndrome, suggesting that selection could act independently on these behavioural traits in this species, although we found no consistent support for phenotypic selection on these traits. Our work shows that repeatable behaviours can vary in their heritability and that social context influences personality traits. Future efforts could separate whether personality traits differ in heritability because they have served specific functional roles in the evolution of the phenotype or because our concept of personality and the stability of behaviour needs to be revised.
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Murata K, Akiyama R, Noro I, Nishio A, Nakagawa S, Yoshioka Y, Deguchi T, Matsuda H, Ishida Y. Search for effective plant materials for Alzheimer's disease. Am J Transl Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1608412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Nagasumi S, Matsuura H, Katayama K, Otsuka T, Goto M, Nakagawa S. Study on Tritium Production Using a High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor for Fusion Reactors: Evaluation of Tritium Outflow by Non-Equilibrium Diffusion Simulations. FUSION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15361055.2017.1352424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Miyahara M, Lagisz M, Nakagawa S, Henderson SE. A narrative meta-review of a series of systematic and meta-analytic reviews on the intervention outcome for children with developmental co-ordination disorder. Child Care Health Dev 2017; 43:733-742. [PMID: 28035694 DOI: 10.1111/cch.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are considered to be the 'gold standards' for synthesizing research evidence in particular areas of enquiry. However, such reviews are only useful if they themselves are conducted to a sufficiently high standard. The aim of this study was to conduct a narrative meta-review of existing analyses of the effectiveness of interventions designed for children with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD). METHODS A narrative meta-review of systematic and meta-analytic reviews aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of intervention for children with DCD was conducted on studies published between 1950 and 2014. We identified suitable reviews, using a modification of the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome (PICO) system and evaluated their methodological quality using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR). In addition, the consistency of the quality of evidence and classification of intervention approaches was assessed independently by two assessors. RESULTS The literature search yielded a total of four appropriate reviews published in the selected time span. The Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews percentage quality scores assigned to each review ranged from 0% (low quality) to 55% (medium quality). Evaluation of the quality of evidence and classification of intervention approaches yielded a discrepancy rate of 25%. All reviews concluded that some kind of intervention was better than none at all. CONCLUSIONS Although the quality of the reviews progressively improved over the years, the shortcomings identified need to be addressed before concrete evidence regarding the best approach to intervention for children with DCD can be specified.
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Funakoshi T, Horimatsu T, Yamada A, Kirishima T, Mizukami T, Harada Y, Nakajima M, Nakagawa S, Matsubara T, Yanagita M, Muto M. Pharmacokinetics and safety of FOLFOX therapy in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Ann Oncol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdx388.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Matsuura H, Yasumoto T, Kouchi S, Nakaya H, Shimakawa S, Nakao Y, Goto M, Nakagawa S, Nishikawa M. Study of Tritium Production for Fusion Reactors Using High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors. FUSION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.13182/fst12-a13431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Poller W, Gast M, Rauch B, Nakagawa S, Stroux A, Rauch U, Skurk C, Zeller T, Landmesser U. 4125Massive immune system-mediated acceleration of atherosclerosis caused by genetic deficiency of long noncoding RNA MALAT1 in ApoE knockout mice. Eur Heart J 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx504.4125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Kimura M, Kohno T, Kohsaka S, Ueda I, Sawano M, Nakagawa S, Ohki T, Matsubara T, Noma S, Hayashida K, Yuasa S, Maekawa Y, Fukuda K. P4283The impact of left ventricular dysfunction on in-hospital complications and 1-year prognosis in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention in Japan: a report from KiCS-PCI-Registry. Eur Heart J 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx504.p4283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Poller W, Gast M, Nakagawa S, Haas J, Stroux A, Mueller C, Boernigen D, Westermann D, Skurk C, Rauch U, Rauch B, Blankenberg S, Meder B, Landmesser U, Zeller T. P4473Comprehensive transcriptome mapping of circulating immune cells from young patients with early onset myocardial infarction detects novel deregulated long noncoding RNAs. Eur Heart J 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx504.p4473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Suskind A, Cawthon P, Nakagawa S, Subak L, Reinders I, Satterfield S, Cummings S, Huang A. THE ROLE OF BODY COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH ON URINARY INCONTINENCE IN WOMEN FROM THE HEALTH ABC STUDY. Innov Aging 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/geroni/igx004.2179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Katada Y, Nakagawa S, Minakata K, Odaka M, Taue H, Sato Y, Yonezawa A, Kayano Y, Yano I, Nakatsu T, Sakamoto K, Uehara K, Sakaguchi H, Yamazaki K, Minatoya K, Sakata R, Matsubara K. Efficacy of protocol-based pharmacotherapy management on anticoagulation with warfarin for patients with cardiovascular surgery. J Clin Pharm Ther 2017; 42:591-597. [PMID: 28503837 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Anticoagulation therapy with warfarin requires periodic monitoring of prothrombin time-international normalized ratio (PT-INR) and adequate dose adjustments based on the data to minimize the risk of bleeding and thromboembolic events. In our hospital, we have developed protocol-based pharmaceutical care, which we called protocol-based pharmacotherapy management (PBPM), for warfarin therapy. The protocol requires pharmacists to manage timing of blood sampling for measuring PT-INR and warfarin dosage determination based on an algorithm. This study evaluated the efficacy of PBPM in warfarin therapy by comparing to conventional pharmaceutical care. METHODS From October 2013 to June 2015, a total of 134 hospitalized patients who underwent cardiovascular surgeries received post-operative warfarin therapy. The early series of patients received warfarin therapy as the conventional care (control group, n=77), whereas the latter received warfarin therapy based on the PBPM (PBPM group, n=68). These patients formed the cohort of the present study and were retrospectively analysed. RESULTS The indications for warfarin included aortic valve replacement (n=56), mitral valve replacement (n=4), mitral valve plasty (n=22) and atrial fibrillation (n=29). There were no differences in patients' characteristics between both groups. The percentage time in therapeutic range in the first 10 days was significantly higher in the PBPM group (47.1%) than that in the control group (34.4%, P<.005). The average time to reach the steady state was significantly (P<.005) shorter in the PBPM group compared to the control group (7.3 vs 8.6 days). WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Warfarin therapy based on our novel PBPM was clinically safe and resulted in significantly better anticoagulation control compared to conventional care.
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Hsu YH, Simons MJP, Schroeder J, Girndt A, Winney IS, Burke T, Nakagawa S. Age-dependent trajectories differ between within-pair and extra-pair paternity success. J Evol Biol 2017; 30:951-959. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Nakagawa S, Luna J, Topkara V, Yuzefpolskaya M, Vawdrey D, Garan A, Takayama H, Takeda K, Colombo P, Naka Y, Blinderman C. Novel Palliative Care Integration Program increases Days Alive and Out of Hospital and Reduces Inpatient Direct Costs Among Left Ventricular Assist Device Patients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.healun.2017.01.454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Miyata T, Yamashita Y, Yamao T, Umezaki N, Tsukamoto M, Kitano Y, Yamamura K, Arima K, Kaida T, Nakagawa S, Imai K, Hashimoto D, Chikamoto A, Ishiko T, Asato T, Mikami Y, Aishima S, Baba H. Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic: Hepatocellular carcinoma developed with angiomyolipoma. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 32:547. [PMID: 28320064 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.13655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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Imakawa K, Nakagawa S. The Phylogeny of Placental Evolution Through Dynamic Integrations of Retrotransposons. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2017; 145:89-109. [PMID: 28110755 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Trophoblasts, a major constituent of the placenta, are known to express genes derived from various endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) as well as LTR retrotransposons. However, the evolutionary significance of ERV-derived genes involved in placental development has not been well characterized. In this review, we catalog the diverse morphology of placental structure among mammalian species with note of counterintuitive developments. We then detail the history of ancient placenta development with paternally expressed gene 10 (Peg10/Sirh1), Peg11/Sirh2, and Sirh7/Ldoc1 as LTR retrotransposons, followed by independent captures of ERV-env-related genes such as Syncytin-1, -2, -A, -B, -Rum1, and Fematrin-1 responsible for trophoblast cell fusion, resulting in multinucleate syncytiotrophoblast formation, and possibly morphological diversification of placentas. Because the endogenization of retroviral infections has occurred multiple times independently in different mammalian lineages, and some use the same molecules in their transcriptional activation, we speculate that ERV gene variants integrated into mammalian genomes in a locus-specific manner have replaced the genes previously responsible for cell fusion. Moreover, ERVs also work as transcriptional regulators of various genes such as interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes. The "baton pass" hypothesis suggests that evolutionary events caused by multiple successive retrotransposon integrations, possibly resulting in effective fusogenic activity, downstream gene transcription in a temporal and spatial manner, and/or increased diversity of placental structures.
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