Exposure of Somatic Cells to Cytoplasm Extracts of Porcine Oocytes Induces Stem Cell-Like Colony Formation and Alters Expression of Pluripotency and Chromatin-Modifying Genes

Cell permeabilization followed by exposure to cytoplasmic extracts of oocytes has been proposed as an alternative to transduction of transcription factors for inducing pluripotency in cultured somatic cells. The main goal in this study was to investigate the effect of treating porcine fibroblast cells with cytoplasmic extracts of GV-stage oocyte (OEx) followed by inhibition of histone deacetylases with Scriptaid (Scrip) on the formation of stem cell-like colonies and expression of genes encoding pluripotency and chromatin-modifying enzymes. Stem cell-like colonies start developing ∼2 weeks after treatment in cells exposed to OEx or OEx + Scrip. The number of cell colonies at the first day of appearance and 48 hours later was also similar between OEx and OEx + Scrip treatments. Transcripts for Nanog, Rex1, and c-Myc genes were detected in most cell samples that were analyzed on different days after OEx treatment. However, Sox2 transcripts were not detected and only a small proportion of samples had detectable levels of Oct4 mRNA after OEx treatment. A similar pattern of transcripts for pluripotency genes was observed in cells treated with OEx alone or OEx + Scrip. Transcript levels for Dnmt1 and Ezh2 were reduced at Day 3 after treatment in cells exposed to OEx. These findings revealed that: (a) exposure to OEx can induce a partial reprogramming of fibroblast cells toward pluripotency, characterized by colony formation and activation of pluripotency genes; and (b) inhibition of histone deacetylases does not improve the reprogramming effect of OEx treatment.

Lack of FSH support enhances LIF-STAT3 signaling in granulosa cells of atretic follicles in cattle

Subordinate follicles (SFs) of bovine follicular waves undergo atresia due to declining FSH concentrations; however, the signalling mechanisms have not been fully deciphered. We used an FSH-induced co-dominance model to determine the effect of FSH on signalling pathways in granulosa cells of the second-largest follicles (SF in control cows and co-dominant follicle (co-DF2) in FSH-treated cows). The SF was smaller than DF in control cows while diameters of co-DF1 and co-DF2 in FSH-treated cows were similar. The presence of cleaved CASP3 protein confirmed that granulosa cells of SFs, but not of DFs and co-DFs, were apoptotic. To determine the effect of FSH on molecular characteristics of the second-largest follicles, we generated relative variables for the second largest follicle in each cow. For this, variables of SF or co-DF2 were divided by the variables of the largest follicle DF or co-DF1 in each cow. There was higher transcript abundance of MAPK1/3 and AKT1/2/3 but lower abundance of phosphorylated MAPK3/1 in SF than co-DF2 granulosa cells. Abundance of mRNA and phosphorylated protein of STAT3 was higher in granulosa cells of control SF than FSH-treated co-DF2. SF granulosa cells had higher levels of LIFR and IL6ST transcripts, the two receptors involved in STAT3 activation. Further, lower transcript abundance of interleukin 6 receptor (IL6R), another receptor involved in STAT3 activation, indicated that STAT3 activation in SF granulosa cells could be mainly due to leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) signalling. These results indicate that atresia due to lack of FSH is associated with activated LIF-STAT3 signalling in SF granulosa cells, as FSH treatment reversed such activation.

Regulation of Anti-Müllerian Hormone and Its Receptor Expression around Follicle Deviation in Cattle

The anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is an important marker of ovarian reserve and for predicting the response to superovulatory treatments in several species. The objective of this study was to investigate whether AMH and its receptor (AMHR2) are regulated in bovine granulosa cells during follicular development. In the first experiment, granulosa cells were retrieved from the two largest follicles on days 2 (before), 3 (at the expected time) or 4 (after deviation) of follicular wave. In the second experiment, four doses of FSH (30, 30, 20 and 20 mg) or saline were administered twice a day starting on Day 2 of the first follicular wave of the cycle. Granulosa cells and follicular fluid were collected from the two largest follicles 12 h after the last injection of FSH or saline. AMH mRNA abundance was similar in granulosa cells of the two largest follicles (F1 and F2) before deviation (Day 2), but greater in dominant (DF) than subordinate follicles (SF) at the expected time (Day 3) and after (Day 4) deviation (p < 0.05). In experiment 1, AMH mRNA levels declined in both DF and SF near the expected time and after deviation when compared to before deviation. There was no difference in AMHR2 mRNA levels before and during follicular deviation (p > 0.05), but they tended to be greater in DFs than SFs (p < 0.1) after deviation. Experiment 2 showed that AMH and AMHR2 mRNA in granulosa cells and AMH protein abundance in follicular fluid were similar (p > 0.05) between both co-dominant follicles collected from the FSH-treated cows. These findings indicate the followings: AMH mRNA levels decrease in both DFs and SFs during follicular deviation; granulosa cells from heathy follicles express more AMH mRNA compared to subordinate follicles undergoing atresia and FSH stimulates AMH and AMHR2 mRNA expression in granulosa cells of co-dominant follicles.

Dysregulated leukemia inhibitory factor and its receptor regulated signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 pathway: a possible cause for repeated implantation failure in women with dormant genital tuberculosis?

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of dormant Mycobacterium tuberculosis on the expression of various endometrial receptivity markers and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)-signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. Expression of endometrial receptivity markers and LIF-STAT3 signaling in in vitro decidualized human endometrial stromal cells (hESC) treated with 65 kDa mycobacterial heat shock protein (HSP65) is also explored.

DESIGN

A prospective study.

SETTING

Tertiary care hospital and reproductive health research unit.

PATIENT(S)

Endometrial tissue samples were collected from 38 women who tested positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and 30 normal women with proven fertility undergoing sterilization. In vitro decidualization of hESC was performed.

INTERVENTION(S)

Endometrial biopsies collected from all women during implantation window and treatment of hESC with HSP65.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Measurement of various endometrial receptivity markers including αvβ3 integrin, E-cadherin, MECA-79, mucin-1, and pinopodes and LIF/LIFR-STAT3 signaling molecules expressed in the endometrium of women with dormant genital tuberculosis (GTB) during implantation window and measured also in HSP65-treated hESC.

RESULT(S)

Significantly reduced levels of endometrial receptivity markers LIF, LIFR, and pSTAT3 were observed in endometrium of women with dormant GTB as compared with controls. A similar trend was observed under in vitro conditions with decreased level of phosphorylated STAT3 in HSP65-treated hESC. However, no change in the expression of endometrial receptivity markers under in vitro conditions was observed.

CONCLUSION(S)

Our findings suggest that endometrium of women with dormant GTB is associated with poor receptivity, as evidenced by reduced receptivity markers and aberrant LIF-STAT3 signaling. In vitro treatment of hESC with HSP65 also confirms compromised endometrial decidualization.

159 IN VITRO EMBRYO PRODUCTION FROM HOLSTEIN CALF OOCYTES RECOVERED BY LAPAROSCOPIC OVUM PICKUP

Oocyte competence and reproductive biology in prepubertal heifer calves are not fully understood. Multiple publications have reported high oocyte yields recovered from calves aged 2–6 months old but low embryo development rates following in vitro embryo production. The objective of this study was to characterise the developmental competence of oocytes from young calves. We report herein the oocyte/embryo yields obtained from 6 Holstein heifer calves that were subjected to gonadotropin stimulation and laparoscopic ovum pick-up (LOPU) every 2 weeks, starting at 2 months of age and ending at 5 months of age. The LOPU was conducted under general anaesthesia with the animal lying in dorsal recumbency on a table with a 45-degree angle to facilitate the visualisation of reproductive organs. Briefly, looking through the laparoscope, the ovarian surface was exposed by pulling from the fimbria with an atraumatic grasping forceps. The follicle contents were aspirated using a 20 G needle mounted on a pipette, which was connected to a collection tube and a vacuum pump. Media and procedures for aspiration, in vitro maturation (IVM), IVF, and in vitro culture (IVC) were standard in use for commercial adult bovine embryo production. Because of the small number of animals and the multifactorial variables in play (age, number of previous treatments and aspirations, etc.), in this preliminary study we focused on the overall oocyte/embryo yield and the potential effects of LOPU on ovarian integrity. A total of 766 follicles were aspirated (avg. 17/calf per session) resulting in 625 cumulus-oocyte complexes (COC) recovered (avg. 14/calf per session; 82% recovery rate). A total of 457 (73%) COC were graded eligible for IVM, of which 353 cleaved (77%) and 109 (24%) reached a viable blastocyst stage at the end of IVC, of which 42 (38.5%) were graded as freezable. In balance, ~2 viable blastocysts/calf per session were produced. No adhesions or sequels were observed in the animals up to the last LOPU session, as well as 2 weeks after the last LOPU when the animals were evaluated by rectal palpation by an experienced OPU veterinary practitioner. Further studies will look into other aspects of oocyte developmental competence to better understand this biological process.

Gonadotoxic effects of busulfan in two strains of mice

Busulfan is a chemotherapy drug that has side effects on spermatogonial stem cells (SSC). The effects of bulsufan treatment on male germ cells and fertility vary significantly between individuals. In this study, we have used molecular, cellular and histopathology approaches to investigate the effects of a single intraperitoneal dose of busulfan (40mgkg(-1)) in two mice strains, Balb/C and Swiss, at two different periods after treatment, 30 and 90 days. Testicular degeneration was observed in both Balb/C and Swiss mice after busulfan injection. Interestingly, testicular functions and fertility recovered spontaneously post busulfan treatment in Swiss mice, but not in Balb/C mice. Abnormal fertility induced by busulfan in Balb/C mice was associated with altered seminiferous tubules, sperm morphology and transcript levels of Nanos2, Nanos3, Gdnf and Plzf genes. These findings revealed that SSC of Balb/C mice are more sensitive to the toxic effects of busulfan then those of Swiss mice.

Efficacy of the porcine species in biomedical research

Since domestication, pigs have been used extensively in agriculture and kept as companion animals. More recently they have been used in biomedical research, given they share many physiological and anatomical similarities with humans. Recent technological advances in assisted reproduction, somatic cell cloning, stem cell culture, genome editing, and transgenesis now enable the creation of unique porcine models of human diseases. Here, we highlight the potential applications and advantages of using pigs, particularly minipigs, as indispensable large animal models in fundamental and clinical research, including the development of therapeutics for inherited and chronic disorders, and cancers.

The Incidence of DNA Double-Strand Breaks Is Higher in Late-Cleaving and Less Developmentally Competent Porcine Embryos

Studies in different species, including human, mice, bovine, and swine, demonstrated that early-cleaving embryos have higher capacity to develop to the blastocyst stage and produce better quality embryos with superior capacity to establish pregnancy than late-cleaving embryos. It has also been shown that experimentally induced DNA damage delays embryo cleavage kinetics and reduces blastocyst formation. To gain additional insights into the effects of genome damage on embryo cleavage kinetics and development, the present study compared the occurrence of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) with the expression profile of genes involved in DNA repair and cell cycle control between early- and late-cleaving embryos. Porcine oocytes matured in vitro were activated, and then early-cleaving (before 24 h) and late-cleaving (between 24 and 48 h) embryos were identified and cultured separately. Developing embryos, on Days 3, 5, and 7, were used to evaluate the total cell number and presence of DSBs (by counting the number of immunofluorescent foci for phosphorylated histone H2A.x [H2AX139ph] and RAD51 proteins) and to quantify transcripts of genes involved in DNA repair and cell cycle control by quantitative RT-PCR. Early-cleaving embryos had fewer DSBs, lower transcript levels for genes encoding DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint proteins, and more cells than late-cleaving embryos. Interestingly, at the blastocyst stage, embryos that developed from early- and late-cleaving groups had similar number of DSBs as well as transcript levels of genes induced by DNA damage. This indicates that only embryos with less DNA damage and/or superior capacity for DNA repair are able to progress to the blastocyst stage. Collectively, findings in this study revealed a negative correlation between the occurrence of DSBs and embryo cleavage kinetics and embryo developmental capacity to the blastocyst stage.

Effect of the transient pharmacological inhibition of Mapk3/1 pathway on ovulation in mice

Mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/1 (Mapk3/1) pathway is critical for LH signal transduction during ovulation. However, the mechanisms remain incompletely understood. We hypothesized that Mapk pathway regulates ovulation through transcriptional regulation of ovulatory genes. To test this hypothesis we used immature mice superovulated with equine and human chorionic gonadotropins (eCG and hCG) and PD0325901, to inhibit hCG-induced Mapk3/1 activity. Mice received either the inhibitor PD0325901 (25 μg/g, i.p.) or vehicle at 2h before hCG stimulation. Administration of the inhibitor abolished Mapk3/1 phosphorylation in granulosa cells. While vehicle-treated mice ovulated normally, there were no ovulations in inhibitor-treated mice. First, we analyzed gene expression in granulosa cells at 0h, 1h and 4h post-hCG. There was expected hCG-driven increase in mRNA abundance of many ovulation-related genes including Ptgs2 in vehicle-treated granulosa cells, but not (P<0.05) in inhibitor-treated group. There was also reduced mRNA and protein abundance of the transcription factor, early growth response 1 (Egr1) in inhibitor-treated granulosa cells. We then used GRMO2 cell-line to test if Egr1 is recruited to promoter of Ptgs2 followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation with either Egr1 or control antibody. Enrichment of the promoter regions in immunoprecipitants of Egr1 antibody indicated that Egr1 binds to the Ptgs2 promoter. We then knocked down Egr1 expression in mouse primary granulosa cells using siRNA technology. Treatment with Egr1-siRNA inhibited Egr1 transcript accumulation, which was associated with reduced expression of Ptgs2 when compared to control-siRNA treated granulosa cells. These data demonstrate that transient inhibition of LH-stimulated MAPK3/1 activity abrogates ovulation in mice. We conclude that Mapk3/1 regulates ovulation, at least in part, through Egr1 and its target gene, Ptgs2 in granulosa cells of ovulating follicles in mice.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress, genome damage, and cancer

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been linked to many diseases, including cancer. A large body of work has focused on the activation of the ER stress response in cancer cells to facilitate their survival and tumor growth; however, there are some studies suggesting that the ER stress response can also mitigate cancer progression. Despite these contradictions, it is clear that the ER stress response is closely associated with cancer biology. The ER stress response classically encompasses activation of three separate pathways, which are collectively categorized the unfolded protein response (UPR). The UPR has been extensively studied in various cancers and appears to confer a selective advantage to tumor cells to facilitate their enhanced growth and resistance to anti-cancer agents. It has also been shown that ER stress induces chromatin changes, which can also facilitate cell survival. Chromatin remodeling has been linked with many cancers through repression of tumor suppressor and apoptosis genes. Interplay between the classic UPR and genome damage repair mechanisms may have important implications in the transformation process of normal cells into cancer cells.

Relationship between adiponectin and fertility in the female pig

Adiponectin isoforms may mediate different aspects of the pleiotropic function of the protein, including the reproductive process. We examined the pattern of circulating adiponectin and adiponectin system expression in fat and ovarian tissues of hyperfertile and subfertile sows. We demonstrated the presence of five different isoforms of adiponectin (90, 158, 180, 250 and >250 kDa) in the circulation and identified a subgroup of subfertile females that displayed reduced abundance of all adiponectin isoforms as well as a lack of the 250-kDa adiponectin isoform in both serum and follicular fluid. Subfertility in these animals was associated with fewer large follicles and corpora lutea in the ovaries, as well as lower concentrations of 17β-oestradiol in the follicular fluid of large follicles. In addition, subfertile females showed higher adiponectin mRNA in fat tissue and altered mRNA and protein expression of adiponectin and its receptors in the ovary. Changes in the abundance and pattern of circulating adiponectin isoforms have been associated with reproductive disorders in animals and humans, including polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). Our findings suggest that the adiponectin system may play an important role in controlling ovarian function and influencing porcine fertility.

Expression and molecular consequences of inhibition of estrogen receptors in granulosa cells of bovine follicles

Background

Estradiol (E2) receptors mediate E2 effects on cell proliferation and apoptosis under normal and pathological conditions. However, the mechanisms involved in E2 signaling are not completely understood. The objectives in this study were to evaluate the expression of estrogen receptors (ESRs) during follicular selection in cattle, and the effect of intrafollicular injection of fulvestrant (an antagonist of ESRs) on follicular development and transcript abundance in granulosa cells.

Methods

Granulosa cells were obtained from the two largest follicles around follicular deviation, after FSH treatment and after intrafollicular injection of fulvestrant. Ovarian follicular dynamics monitored by ultrasonography and quantitative real time PCR were used to validate the in vivo model and investigate the effects of FSH supplementation or ESR blockade on mRNA expression of estradiol-related genes.

Results

ESR1 and ESR2 were expressed in granulosa cells of both dominant (F1) and subordinate (F2) follicles, but their transcripts levels were higher in F1 than F2 after follicular deviation. FSH treatment maintained mRNA levels of both ESR1 and ESR2 in F2 follicles at similar levels observed in F1 follicles. Intrafollicular injection of 100 μM fulvestrant inhibited follicular growth and decreased CYP19A1 mRNA levels. Transcript levels for both ESR1 and ESR2 were not affected by fulvestrant injection. Analyses of FSH-regulated genes revealed that ESRs inhibition in the dominant follicle decreased the transcript levels of the GJA1 but not those of PRKAR2B, MRO or LRP11 genes.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that: both ESR1 and ESR2 are regulated during follicular deviation and dominance in cattle and in response to FSH treatment, and ESRs are required for normal gene expression and development of the dominant follicle. Furthermore, we have validated an in vivo model to study estrogen signaling during follicular development that allows paracrine signaling between different follicular cells in a physiological endocrine environment.

Immunologic biomarkers for clinical and therapeutic management of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

The therapeutic management of psoriasis includes conventional treatments as well as the new generation of highly effective TNF-α inhibitors. However, psoriasis has proven to be a complex therapeutic challenge and treatment failures are not uncommon. Thus, laboratory biomarkers of disease progression/therapeutic efficacy may greatly help in the clinical management of psoriasis.

AIMS

To identify laboratory biomarkers for clinical management and therapeutic monitoring of psoriasis.

METHODS

An observational study performed on 59 patients, presenting moderate to severe psoriasis, undergoing treatment with anti-TNF-α agents (etanercept, adalimumab, and infliximab). Soluble and cellular immune/inflammatory parameters were assessed at baseline and after 12 and 24 weeks of treatment.

RESULTS

Clinical efficacy was achieved in 88% of the subjects at 12 weeks, reaching 90% after 24 weeks. IL-6 and IL-22, which were elevated at baseline, were significantly reduced, in association with a significant decrease of CLA+ T cells and an increase of Treg lymphocytes. T, B, and NK cell subsets and T cell response to recall antigens did not show any evidence of immune suppression.

CONCLUSIONS

Immune/inflammatory parameters including IL-6 and IL-22, CLA+ T cells, and Treg lymphocytes may prove to be valuable laboratory tools for the clinical and therapeutic monitoring of psoriasis.

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) signaling during ovulation in mice

A complex network of endocrine/paracrine signals regulates granulosa-cell function in ovarian follicles. Mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) has recently emerged as a master intracellular integrator of extracellular signals and nutrient availability. The objectives of the present study were to characterize the expression pattern and kinase activity of MTOR during follicular and corpus luteum development, and to examine how inhibition of MTOR kinase activity affects preovulatory maturation of ovarian follicles. MTOR expression was constitutive throughout follicular and corpus luteum development. Gonadotropins induced MTOR kinase activity in the ovary, which was inhibited by rapamycin treatment (10 µg/g body weight, intraperitoneal injection). Inhibition of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-induced MTOR activity during preovulatory follicle maturation did not change key events of ovulation. Granulosa cells of rapamycin-treated mice showed reduced MTOR kinase activity at 1 and 4 hr post-hCG and overexpression of hCG-induced ovulation genes at 4 hr post-hCG. Overexpression of these ovulatory genes was associated with hyper-activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), which occurred in response to inhibition of MTOR with rapamycin and suggested that MTOR may function as a negative regulator of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Indeed, simultaneous inhibition of MTOR and ERK1/2 activities during preovulatory follicle maturation caused anovulation. Inhibition of hCG-induced ERK1/2 activity alone suppressed MTOR kinase activity, indicating that MAPK pathway is upstream of MTOR. Thus, normal ovulation appears to be a result of complex interactions between MTOR and MAPK signaling pathways in granulosa cells of ovulating follicles in mice.

Long-term follow-up of peripheral lymphocyte subsets in a cohort of multiple sclerosis patients treated with natalizumab

Natalizumab, an anti-alpha4 integrin monoclonal antibody inhibiting the adhesion of lymphocytes to the endothelium, is a widely accepted drug treatment for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). A peripheral increase of T and B lymphocytes has already been observed as an early treatment effect. This retrospective observational study was aimed to evaluate the peripheral lymphocyte subsets during a long-term treatment follow-up. We included 23 RRMS patients treated with natalizumab for at least 24-48 months who had pretreatment lymphocyte evaluation. Baseline values of lymphocyte subsets and CD4/CD8 ratio did not differ significantly from the 23 matched healthy subjects. The periodic (every 3-6 months) assessment of immune cell subsets was performed by flow cytometry on peripheral blood collected before drug injection. Therapy with natalizumab was confirmed to be effective during the observational period. For all patients, the increase in lymphocytes during natalizumab therapy compared to baseline at every assessment was significantly higher compared to that of overall white blood cells (2·1- and 1·3-fold, respectively, P < 0·0001). Both T cell subsets were proportionally modified and the CD4/CD8 ratio did not change significantly, while B cells increased significantly compared to T and NK cells (3·2-, 1·88- and 1·92-fold, respectively, P < 0·0001). These changes remained constant throughout the 25-48-month period of therapy. In conclusion, effective natalizumab treatment of RRMS patients was associated with the persistence of its biological effects through a stable increase of peripheral lymphocytes, mainly B cells, and an unchanged proportion of T cell subsets in long-term follow-up.

Inhibition of histone deacetylases enhances DNA damage repair in SCNT embryos

Recent studies have shown that DNA damage affects embryo development and also somatic cell reprogramming into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. It has been also shown that treatment with histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) improves development of embryos produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) and enhances somatic cell reprogramming. There is evidence that increasing histone acetylation at the sites of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is critical for DNA damage repair. Therefore, we hypothesized that HDACi treatment enhances cell programming and embryo development by facilitating DNA damage repair. To test this hypothesis, we first established a DNA damage model wherein exposure of nuclear donor cells to ultraviolet (UV) light prior to nuclear transfer reduced the development of SCNT embryos proportional to the length of UV exposure. Detection of phosphorylated histone H2A.x (H2AX139ph) foci confirmed that exposure of nuclear donor cells to UV light for 10 s was sufficient to increase DSBs in SCNT embryos. Treatment with HDACi during embryo culture increased development and reduced DSBs in SCNT embryos produced from UV-treated cells. Transcript abundance of genes involved in either the homologous recombination (HR) or nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathways for DSBs repair was reduced by HDACi treatment in developing embryos at day 5 after SCNT. Interestingly, expression of HR and NHEJ genes was similar between HDACi-treated and control SCNT embryos that developed to the blastocyst stage. This suggested that the increased number of embryos that could achieve the blastocyst stage in response to HDACi treatment have repaired DNA damage. These results demonstrate that DNA damage in nuclear donor cells is an important component affecting development of SCNT embryos, and that HDACi treatment after nuclear transfer enhances DSBs repair and development of SCNT embryos.

Role of leptin receptors in granulosa cells during ovulation

Leptin is an important hormone influencing reproductive function. However, the mechanisms underpinning the role of leptin in the regulation of reproduction remain to be completely deciphered. In this study, our objective is to understand the mechanisms regulating the expression of leptin receptor (Lepr) and its role in ovarian granulosa cells during ovulation. First, granulosa cells were collected from superovulated mice to profile mRNA expression of Lepr isoforms (LeprA and LeprB) throughout follicular development. Expression of LeprA and LeprB was dramatically induced in the granulosa cells of ovulating follicles at 4 h after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) treatment. Relative abundance of both mRNA and protein of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (Cebpβ) increased in granulosa cells from 1 to 7 h post-hCG. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation assay confirmed the recruitment of Cebpβ to Lepr promoter. Thus, hCG-induced transcription of Lepr appears to be regulated by Cebpβ, which led us to hypothesise that Lepr may play a role during ovulation. To test this hypothesis, we used a recently developed pegylated superactive mouse leptin antagonist (PEG-SMLA) to inhibit Lepr signalling during ovulation. I.p. administration of PEG-SMLA (10 μg/g) to superovulated mice reduced ovulation rate by 65% compared with control treatment. Although the maturation stage of the ovulated oocytes remained unaltered, ovulation genes Ptgs2 and Has2 were downregulated in PEG-SMLA-treated mice compared with control mice. These results demonstrate that Lepr is dramatically induced in the granulosa cells of ovulating follicles and this induction of Lepr expression requires the transcription factor Cebpβ. Lepr plays a critical role in the process of ovulation by regulating, at least in part, the expression of the important genes involved in the preovulatory maturation of follicles.

Differential abundance of IGF1, bile acids, and the genes involved in their signaling in the dominant follicle microenvironment of lactating cows and nulliparous heifers

It is well documented that incidence of fertility problems is high in lactating cows but not in heifers of the same genetic merit. Understanding the metabolic and molecular differences between fertile heifers and relatively infertile lactating cows will help us understand the pathogenesis of infertility in dairy cows. Follicular waves in lactating cows (30-50 days in milk; n = 12) and heifers (n = 10) were synchronized by ultrasound-guided follicle ablation. Follicular fluid and granulosa cells of the dominant follicle were collected by ultrasound-guided aspiration along with blood sampling on Day 6 after synchronization. Dominant and subordinate follicles were larger in lactating cows than in heifers. Metabolic stress in lactating cows was evidenced by lower glucose and higher ß-hydroxy butyric acid compared with heifers. Insulin-like growth factor 1 signaling was reduced in the dominant follicle in lactating cows through reduced insulin-like growth factor 1 concentrations in plasma and follicular fluid of the dominant follicle, and reduced expression of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPPA) in their granulosa cells. We also found increased levels of total bile acids in the follicular fluid of the dominant follicle of lactating cows compared with heifers. Granulosa cells of the dominant follicle had higher expression of SLC10A2 and GPBAR1 (bile acid transporter and receptor, respectively) in lactating cows. These novel data are indicative of increased bile acid signaling within the dominant follicles of lactating cows compared with heifers. Overall, we demonstrate in the present study the metabolic, endocrine, and molecular differences within the microenvironment of the dominant follicles in lactating cows and heifers. These differences in follicular microenvironment may contribute toward abnormal ovarian function in lactating dairy cows.

Phosphorylated histone H2A.x in porcine embryos produced by IVF and somatic cell nuclear transfer

Phosphorylated histone H2A.x (H2AX139ph) is a key factor for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and the presence of H2AX139ph foci indicates the sites of DSBs. In this study, we characterized the presence of H2AX139ph during in vitro development of porcine embryos produced by IVF and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Pronuclear stage embryos produced by IVF had, on average, 9.2 H2AX139ph foci per pronucleus. The number of H2AX139ph foci was higher in the 2-cell-stage embryos than in the 4-cell-stage embryos fixed at 48 h post-fertilization. The percentage of H2AX139ph-positive nuclei was higher in SCNT embryos that were activated with ionomycin (ION) alone than in those activated with ION and strontium chloride (ION+Sr(2+)). A negative correlation was found between the percentage of H2AX139ph-positive cells and the total number of cells per embryo in day 7 blastocysts produced by IVF or SCNT. Based on the detection of H2AX139ph foci, the findings of this study indicate that DSBs occur in a high proportion of porcine embryos produced by either IVF or SCNT; fast-cleaving embryos have fewer DSBs than slow-cleaving embryos; the oocyte activation protocol can affect DNA integrity in SCNT embryos; and better-quality blastocysts have fewer DSBs. We propose that the presence of H2AX139ph foci can be a useful marker of embryo quality.

Production of cloned pigs with targeted attenuation of gene expression

The objective of this study was to demonstrate that RNA interference (RNAi) and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technologies can be used to attenuate the expression of specific genes in tissues of swine, a large animal species. Apolipoprotein E (apoE), a secreted glycoprotein known for its major role in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism and transport, was selected as the target gene for this study. Three synthetic small interfering RNAs (siRNA) targeting the porcine apoE mRNA were tested in porcine granulosa cells in primary culture and reduced apoE mRNA abundance ranging from 45-82% compared to control cells. The most effective sequence was selected for cloning into a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) expression vector under the control of RNA polymerase III (U6) promoter. Stably transfected fetal porcine fibroblast cells were generated and used to produce embryos with in vitro matured porcine oocytes, which were then transferred into the uterus of surrogate gilts. Seven live and one stillborn piglet were born from three gilts that became pregnant. Integration of the shRNA expression vector into the genome of clone piglets was confirmed by PCR and expression of the GFP transgene linked to the expression vector. Analysis showed that apoE protein levels in the liver and plasma of the clone pigs bearing the shRNA expression vector targeting the apoE mRNA was significantly reduced compared to control pigs cloned from non-transfected fibroblasts of the same cell line. These results demonstrate the feasibility of applying RNAi and SCNT technologies for introducing stable genetic modifications in somatic cells for eventual attenuation of gene expression in vivo in large animal species.

Homologous recombination and non-homologous end-joining repair pathways in bovine embryos with different developmental competence

This study investigated the expression of genes controlling homologous recombination (HR), and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) DNA-repair pathways in bovine embryos of different developmental potential. It also evaluated whether bovine embryos can respond to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) induced with ultraviolet irradiation by regulating expression of genes involved in HR and NHEJ repair pathways. Embryos with high, intermediate or low developmental competence were selected based on the cleavage time after in vitro insemination and were removed from in vitro culture before (36 h), during (72 h) and after (96 h) the expected period of embryonic genome activation. All studied genes were expressed before, during and after the genome activation period regardless the developmental competence of the embryos. Higher mRNA expression of 53BP1 and RAD52 was found before genome activation in embryos with low developmental competence. Expression of 53BP1, RAD51 and KU70 was downregulated at 72 h and upregulated at 168 h post-insemination in response to DSBs induced by ultraviolet irradiation. In conclusion, important genes controlling HR and NHEJ DNA-repair pathways are expressed in bovine embryos, however genes participating in these pathways are only regulated after the period of embryo genome activation in response to ultraviolet-induced DSBs.

Presence of cleaved caspase 3 in swine embryos of different developmental capacities produced by parthenogenetic activation

This study assessed the presence of cleaved caspase 3 (CC3) during the in vitro development of swine embryos produced by parthenogenetic activation (PA). Embryos with high and low capacity to develop into blastocysts and the exposure to a caspase inhibitor (z-DEVD-fmk) were used to investigate the effect of CC3 on embryo development. The blastocyst rate (64.3% vs. 16.4%) and the average number of nuclei per blastocyst (39.7 vs. 19.8) were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in early- (before 24 hr) compared to late- (between 24 and 48 hr) cleaving embryos after PA. CC3 was mainly detected in the cytoplasm of Day-2 and -4 embryos, but was primarily localized in the nucleus of Day-5 and -6 embryos. The fluorescence signal for CC3 relative to negative controls was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in early- (2.42-fold) compared to late-cleaving (1.39-fold) embryos at Day 2 of culture. Treatment with z-DEVD-fmk during the first 24 or 48 hr of the culture period resulted in more embryos developing into blastocysts compared to the control group (55.8% and 55.1% vs. 37%, respectively; P < 0.05). This study confirmed the presence of CC3 in PA embryos from the two-cell to the blastocyst stage, and revealed that CC3 cellular-localization changed during embryo development. CC3 was shown to be more abundant in early-cleaving and more developmentally competent embryos compared to late-cleaving and less developmentally competent embryos. The inhibition of caspase activity at the beginning, but not at the end, of the culture period affected development of PA embryos.

Synergistic effect of porcine follicular fluid and dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate on development of parthenogenetically activated oocytes from pre-pubertal gilts

This study investigated the effect of porcine follicular fluid (PFF) and dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate (dbcAMP) during in vitro maturation (IVM) of porcine oocytes on meiotic maturation, fertilization and embryo development, and compared the effect of supplementing the embryo culture media with PFF or foetal bovine serum (FBS) on embryo development. Oocytes from pre-pubertal gilts were IVM for 44 h, and parthenogenetically activated or in vitro-fertilized. Embryos were cultured in porcine zygote medium (PZM3) for 7 days. Cleavage and blastocyst rates were evaluated at 48 h and 7 days of culture. The supplementation of the IVM medium with 25% PFF and 1 mm dbcAMP for the first 22 h resulted in more (p < 0.05) embryos developing to the blastocyst stage as compared with the inclusion of dbcAMP alone. The dbcAMP + PFF combination increased (p < 0.05) the average number of nuclei per blastocyst as compared with either of these components alone or in its absence. A synergistic effect of dbcAMP + PFF during IVM was also reflected in the capacity of oocytes to regulate sperm penetration and prevent polyspermy, as twice as many oocytes from the control group were penetrated by more than one sperm as compared with those matured in the presence of both dbcAMP and PFF. The supplementation of PZM3 with 10% FBS from days 5 to 7 of culture significantly improved the total cell quantity in embryos derived either from control or dbcAMP + PFF matured oocytes. There was no effect on the total cell quantity when FBS was replaced by the same concentration of PFF. These studies showed that dbcAMP, PFF and FBS can improve both the quantity (57.3% vs 41.5%) and quality (74.8 vs 33.3 nuclei) of porcine blastocysts derived from oocytes recovered of pre-pubertal gilts.

Acne and smoking

BACKGROUND.: Post-adolescent acne is an inflammatory disorder, whose cause is unknown. Contrasting data are available on correlation between acne and smoking habit. OBJECTIVES.: To verify the frequency of clinically non-inflammatory (atypical) post-adolescent acne (APAA) among women, a possible correlation with cigarette smoking, possible differences in sebum composition in a group of female smokers with acne compared to healthy smokers and non-smokers. METHOD AND RESULTS.: 1046 randomly selected women (25-50-years-old) participated at the study. In 60 selected female subjects we analyzed sebum composition for alpha-tocopherol, squalene and squalene monohydroperoxide. We found a high prevalence of APAA among women (74.6%), a strong correlation with smoking habit (p < 0.0001), as well as an increase in the grade of sebum peroxidation (p < 0.05) with a reduction in vitamin E (p = 0.02), in the subjects with acne compared to the controls. CONCLUSIONS.: Clinical evidence and experimental data showed a straight correlation between smoking habit and post-pubertal acne in which the clinically non-inflammatory type-APAA-is the most frequent. In the more severe cases we could consider APAA as a new entity (smoker's acne).

High prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection in autoimmune disorders such as psoriasis and in chronic respiratory diseases, including lung cancer

The early diagnosis and treatment of individuals harboring M. tuberculosis is key to ensuring the effectiveness of health programs aimed at the elimination of tuberculosis (TB). Monitoring for TB also has other important health care implications for the related immune pathology caused by the chronic inflammatory response to M. tuberculosis. Moreover, the recent introduction of biologic therapies for the treatment of several immune-mediated inflammatory diseases has shown unexpected high frequencies of reactivation of latent TB. The present cross-sectional study is aimed at estimating the prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in different groups of subjects, either undergoing a routine program of screening for TB or a clinical monitoring of autoimmune or lung disorders, by analyzing their immune response in vitro to a pool of different M. tuberculosis antigens through an IFN-gamma-release assay (IGRA). We consecutively tested 1,644 subjects including health care workers (931), healthy immigrants from different countries (93), patients with a diagnosis of psoriasis (405), patients with lung inflammatory disease (60) or lung neoplasia (32) and a group of HIV-1 infected Italian subjects (120). The prevalence of IGRAs positive responses among health care workers was 8.9 percent. In comparison, significantly higher frequencies were found in healthy immigrant subjects (33.3%), similar to those found in inflammatory broncho-pneumopathies (34.5%) or lung cancer (29.6%). Interestingly, an unexpected high prevalence was also found in patients affected by psoriasis (18.0%), while HIV-infected subjects had values comparable to those of health care workers (10.8%). An age cut-off was determined and applied for each group by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves in order to perform the statistical analysis among age-comparable groups. Multivariate analysis showed that the age and clinical conditions such as having a diagnosis of psoriasis or a lung inflammatory disease were independent risk factors for developing an IGRA positive response. This study highlights an unprecedented high prevalence of IGRA positive responses among patients affected by psoriasis and emphasizes the need for a preliminary assessment of LTBI before the administration of any biologic therapy based on cytokine antagonists such as anti-TNF-alpha. Moreover, screening for LTBI should be routinely performed in the presence of a chronic pulmonary disease.

Detection of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers and production enhancement treatments in transgenic goats expressing recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase

Compromised lactation physiology has been observed in transgenic animals, possibly due to the excessive demand placed by the expression of complex recombinant glycoproteins in the mammary gland. In previous studies we described lactation parameters and milk composition characteristics of transgenic goats expressing recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase in milk, and we showed evidence suggesting that lactation cessation could be associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress. We now report data from immunohistochemistry studies targeting activation transcription factor 6 and caspase 12, two signal transducers associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress, designed to further elucidate potential mechanisms responsible for the disruption in mammary epithelium function previously described. We found strong evidence of endoplasmic reticulum stress associated with the premature cessation of lactation. In addition, we utilized previously generated knowledge to design and test two treatments for enhanced productivity in transgenic goats. Pre-partum treatment with reserpine and dexamethasone to stimulate mammary priming for lactation resulted in a significant increase in milk production on day 1 (573 ± 350 vs. 93 ± 92 mL; P < 0.01), first week (8,832 ± 2,286 vs. 5,946 ± 2,039; P < 0.01) and the first month of lactation (42.5 ± 10 vs. 34.9 ± 6 kg; P < 0.05) compared to untreated controls. Mammary infusions with inosine during the early stages of lactation to promote mammary stem-cell proliferation also resulted in significantly increased milk production volumes, ranging from 26 to 200% more milk, in the treated glands compared to placebo.

33 PRODUCTION OF CLONED BOER GOATS AND DORPER SHEEP IN ARGENTINA

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has been proposed as an outstanding tool for expanding the dissemination capacity of animals of extreme genetic value, as well as for the genetic resurrection of elite animals affected by incurable disease or that died suddenly. Numbers of outstanding males of meat-specialised breeds of goats (Boer) and sheep (Dorper) recently imported into Argentina were expanded using SCNT technology. Oocytes were collected by laparoscopic ovum pickup (LOPU) from 40 Raza Criolla goats and 38 crossbreed sheep that were hormonally stimulated, as described previously (Baldassarre et al. 2002 Theriogenology 57, 275). Oocyte maturation, cell transfer, fusion and activation, culture, and transfer to recipients were conducted following procedures previously described (Baldassarre et al. 2003 Cloning Stem Cells 5, 279). Briefly, oocytes were matured in vitro for 24 h in TCM 199 supplemented with hormones and 10% serum, at 38.5°C and 5% CO2. 2 caprine fetal fibroblast cell lines (FF1 and FF2) were established from purebred Boer fetuses generated by selective breeding of elite animals, while a fibroblast ovine line was established from a skin biopsy from an elite Dorper ram. Cells were transferred into previously enucleated oocytes, followed by electric fusion using a single DC pulse of 1.6 kV cm–1 for 70 μs. Finally, the reconstructed embryos were activated using ionomycin (5 μM/5 min) followed by cycloheximide (10 μg mL–1) and cytochalasin B (7.5 μg mL–1) for 4 to 5 h, followed by in vitro culture in mSOF media before transfer into the oviducts of synchronized recipients within 24 h after fusion. An average of 10.4 and 12.8 reconstructed embryos were transferred to each of 21 and 12 recipient goats and sheep, respectively. Pregnancy was detected and monitored for the first 3 months by transrectal ultrasound scanning. Initial pregnancy (4 recipients, 33%) was maintained from gestation Day 30 to term in sheep, while goats exhibited a dramatic drop from 9 recipients pregnant (41%) on Day 30 to only 2 (9%) giving birth. Deliveries were by elective C-section. The number of normal offspring with good postpartum survival was 2/2 in goats (100%) and 3/5 (60%) in sheep. Substantial differences were observed between the 2 cell lines used in goats, where pregnancy was 4/11 (36%) for FF1 and 5/10 (50%) for FF2 at Day 30; however, only 2 goats carrying FF2 pregnancies carried. These results are in agreement with previous reports suggesting that cell line may be the largest source of result variation in SCNT. At the time of writing this abstract these clones are ∼4 months of age, healthy and growing normally (>40 kg weight). To the best of our knowledge, these are the first cloned goats produced by SCNT technology in Latin America, and the second group to produce cloned sheep in the region.

30 SCRIPTAID TREATMENT IMPROVES POST-IMPLANTATION DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP CLONED EMBRYOS

Increased histone acetylation by exposure to inhibitors of deacetylase enzymes has been reported to improve development of embryos produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). However, the response to such treatment seems to vary according to the species, cell line, and type of inhibitor used. The main objective of this study was to evaluate if treatment with the histone deacetylase inhibitor Scriptaid could improve the development to term of sheep SCNT-embryos. The 2 fibroblast cell lines used in this study were obtained from skin biopsies collected from 2 adult rams of the Santa Ines breed. Oocytes were collected by laparoscopic ovum pickup (LOPU) from 30 crossbred sheep that were hormonally stimulated as described previously (Baldassarre et al. 2002 Theriogenology 57, 275). Oocyte maturation, cell transfer, fusion and activation, culture and transfer to recipients were conducted following procedures previously described (Baldassarre et al. 2003 Cloning Stem Cells 5, 279). Briefly, oocytes were matured in vitro for 24 h in TCM 199 supplemented with hormones and 10% fetal bovine serum, at 38.5°C in 5% CO2. Cells were transferred into enucleated oocytes, followed by electric fusion using a single DC pulse of 1.6 kV cm–1 for 70 μs. The reconstructed embryos were then activated using ionomycin (5 μM/5 min) followed by cycloheximide (10 μg mL–1) and cytochalasin B (7.5 μg mL–1) for 4 to 5 h and then cultured in mSOF media (control); while half of the reconstructed embryos were exposed to 500 nM Scriptaid for 10 to 12 h starting after ionomycin treatment. Subsequent to culture in mSOF ± Scriptaid as above, selected embryos were finally transferred into the oviducts of synchronized recipients within 24 h from fusion. Pregnancy was detected and monitored for the first 3 months by transrectal ultrasound scanning. A total of 258 oocytes were recovered (8.6/donor), of which 203 resulted in fused embryos after micromanipulation (79%) and 178 (69%) were selected for transfer into the oviducts of 18 synchronized recipients (avg. 10 embryos/recipient). Initial pregnancy was significantly higher in the Scriptaid group (40 v. 12.5%; P < 0.01). Interestingly, pregnancy was maintained through gestation Day 90 in the Scriptaid group, while the pregnant recipient carrying the control embryos lost her pregnancy by Day 60. All 4 pregnant recipients are due in early August. Our results are consistent with a previous report from (Zhao et al. 2010 Cel. Reprog. 12, 75) working with pig embryos and suggest that Scriptaid treatment can improve post-implantation development of SCNT sheep embryos. The results above will be further evaluated when data from births becomes available.

27 CLONING OF ADULT PIGS USING SCRIPTAID TREATMENT AND PREOVULATORY EMBRYO TRANSFER

There is growing interest in the use of swine in biomedical research. Cloning from cultured somatic cells (SCNT) has been the preferred method to generate genetically modified swine models. In a recent report, swine cloning efficiency was increased by treatment of reconstructed embryos with the inhibitor of deacetylase enzymes Scriptaid (Zhao et al. 2010 Cel. Reprog. 12, 75). Also, the timing of SCNT-embryo transfer with respect to the recipient’s expected time of ovulation was shown to affect cloning efficiency, whereas preovulatory embryo transfer resulted in a higher rate of cloned piglets born compared to postovulatory embryo transfer (Petersen et al. 2008 Cloning Stem Cells 10, 355). Therefore, our objective was to combine Scriptaid treatment and preovulatory embryo transfer in the same protocol for swine cloning. Cumulus–oocyte complexes aspirated from 3- to 6-mm diameter follicles were matured in vitro under standard conditions (Martinez Diaz et al. 2010 Cel. Reprog. 12, 85) and used as host oocytes for SCNT. Fibroblast cell lines were established from skin biopsies collected from 2 adult boars and cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% antibiotics. Oocytes were micromanipulated in Tyrode’s lactate-pyruvate-HEPES medium supplemented with 7.5 μg mL–1 cytochalasin B (CB) and electrically fused using a single DC pulse of 1.6 kV cm–1 for 70 μs. Activation was performed using ionomycin (15 μM/5 min) followed by exposure to CB (7.5 μg mL–1) and cyclohexemide (10 μg mL–1) for 5 h in porcine zygote medium (PZM-3; Yoshioka et al. 2002 Biol. Reprod. 66, 112). Reconstructed embryos were exposed to 500 nM Scriptaid for 10 to 12 h starting after ionomycin treatment. Oocytes were then washed and cultured in PZM-3 medium until transfer. Peripubertal recipient gilts were synchronized by oral administration of altrenogest (Regu-Mate®; 20 mg day–1) for 12 days, followed by 1.000 IU eCG injected on the last day of altrenogest treatment and 500 IU hCG 72 h later. 1-cell stage embryos were transferred into the oviduct after ∼20 h from hCG injection or 22 h before the expected ovulation time. Pregnancy was confirmed and monitored by ultrasonography and parturition was induced by injecting PGF2α at Day 115 of pregnancy. A total of 840 reconstructed embryos were transferred into 10 gilts [average 84 (range 60–110) embryos/gilt]. 4 gilts (40%) were detected to be pregnant 4 weeks after transfer, and 2 (20%) delivered 1 (1100 g) and 2 (950 and 850 g) healthy cloned piglets. The number of embryos transferred to these 2 gilts was 85 and 70. These results confirm that Scriptaid treatment and preovulatory embryo transfer can be applied in the same cloning protocol to produce cloned piglets from adult cell lines. To our knowledge, these are the first cloned pigs produced in Latin America.

Relationships between backfat thickness and reproductive efficiency of sows: A two-year trial involving two commercial herds fixing backfat thickness at breeding

In this study, we established whether controlling backfat thickness at breeding over a long time period can result in optimized reproductive performance in sows. Two commercial herds were used: herd A (322 purebred Landrace sows) and herd B (337 cross-bred Yorkshire-Landrace sows). Backfat thickness at breeding and farrowing, along with reproductive data [live Born (LB), stillborn, mummified, piglets alive at 48 h (LB48) and the weaning-to-estrus interval (WEI)] were collected over nine parities. The herd B producer was more successful in maintaining a steady backfat thickness at breeding than was the herd A producer. At breeding, the backfat thickness of sows from herd A showed a marked decrease between parities 2 and 5. During their first parity, these sows gained the least backfat during gestation and lost the most backfat during lactation. Sows from herd B had more LB and LB48 than sows from herd A. In herd A, a longer WEI was found in first and second parity sows. Our results demonstrate that maintaining backfat thickness throughout the reproductive cycle is more important than fixing this parameter at breeding alone. This is particularly true for gilts, which are prone to mobilize fat tissue reserves, a condition associated with declining reproductive performance. Key words: Backfat thickness, reproductive performance, sow, weaning-to-estrus interval

Pre- and postimplantation development of swine-cloned embryos derived from fibroblasts and bone marrow cells after inhibition of histone deacetylases

The present study assessed changes in epigenetic markers and pre- and postimplantation development in somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) porcine embryos after treatment with the inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACi), Trichostatin A (TSA). Embryos were generated using in vitro matured oocytes and nuclei from either a male fetal fibroblast (FF) cell line or bone marrow cells (BMC) from three adult sows. After nuclear transfer, oocytes were either exposed or not to 10 ng/mL TSA for 10 h starting 1 h after cell fusion. Samples of one-cell stage and cleaved (two- to four-cell stage) embryos were fixed at 15 to 18 h or 46 to 48 h after cell fusion and immunocytochemically processed to detect histone H3 acetylation at lysine 14 (H3K14ac) or histone H3 dimethylation at lysine 9 (H3K9m2) using specific primary antibodies. TSA treatment increased the immunofluorescent signal for H3K14ac in cleaved embryos derived from both FF and BMC but did not affect H3K9m2. Development to the blastocyst stage was increased by TSA treatment (45.2 vs. 23.9%) in embryos produced from FF cells but not in those produced from BMC (30.6 vs. 27.4%). Cloned piglets were produced from both treatments when day 5 to 6 blastocyst-stage embryos derived from FF cells were transferred into the uterus of recipient females. Cloned piglets were also produced after the transfer of TSA-treated blastocysts derived from BMC of adult sows but not from control embryos. These findings suggest that the inhibition of histone deacetylases have similar effects on enhancing H3K14ac in SCNT embryos reconstructed from different cell types but the effect on in vitro and in vivo development seems to differ according to the nuclear donor cell type.

Adiponectin action from head to toe

Adiponectin, the most abundant protein secreted by white adipose tissue, is known for its involvement in obesity-related disorders such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Moreover, modulation of the circulating adiponectin concentration is observed in pathologies that are more or less obesity-related, such as cancer and rheumatoid arthritis. The wide distribution of adiponectin receptors in various organs and tissues suggests that adiponectin has pleiotropic effects on numerous physiological processes. Besides its well-known insulin-sensitizing, anti-inflammatory and antiatherosclerotic properties, accumulating evidence suggests that adiponectin may also have anticancer properties and be cardioprotective. A beneficial effect of adiponectin on female reproductive function was also suggested. Since adiponectin has numerous beneficial biological functions, its use as a therapeutic agent has been suggested. However, the use of adiponectin or its receptors as therapeutic targets is complicated by the presence of different adiponectin oligomeric isoforms and production sites, by multiple receptors with differing affinities for adiponectin isoforms, and by cell-type-specific effects in different tissues. In this review, we discuss the known and potential roles of adiponectin in various tissues and pathologies. The therapeutic promise of administration of adiponectin and the use of its circulating levels as a diagnostic biomarker are further discussed based on the latest experimental studies.

423 PRODUCTION OF CLONED PIGS EXPRESSING APOLIPOPROTEIN E-SPECIFIC SMALL HAIRPIN (shRNA)

Apolipoprotein E (apo E) is a known risk factor for developing premature atherosclerosis and Alzheimer’s syndrome. The aim of this study was to create a pig model with reduced apo E levels using RNA interference (RNAi) and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technologies. Three synthetic small interfering RNA targeting the porcine apo E mRNA were designed, and the knockdown efficiency was assessed in cultured porcine granulosa cells by real-time PCR. The observed apo E knockdown efficiency ranged from 45 to 82% compared with control cells, indicating the targeted degradation of apoE mRNA.A small hairpin RNA (shRNA) expressing vector was constructed in PRNAT.U6.Neo (Genscript Corp., Piscataway, NJ, USA) based on the most effective apo E RNAi sequence under the control of polymerase III (U6) promoter, and then introduced into fetal porcine fibroblast cells. Clones were selected by neomycin treatment and green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression. SCNT was performed using IVM oocytes collected from prepubertal gilts. Oocyte maturation and activation and embryo culture were performed as previously described (Nascimento et al. 2009 Reprod. Domest. Anim. in press). Embryos were cultured in vitro for 5 to 6 days, briefly exposed to fluorescent light to confirm GFP expression, and then surgically transferred into the uterus of recipient gilts. The recipient gilts were synchronized by daily oral administration of altrenogest (20 mg day-1; Regu-Mate®, Intervet, Millsboro, MD, USA) for 12 or 13 days, followed by 1000 IU of eCG injected in the last day of altrenogest treatment and 500 IU of hCG 72 h later. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed by ultrasonography at Day 20 to 25 after embryo transfer, and parturition was induced by injecting PGF2? (10 mg of dinoprost tromethamine; Lutalyse®, Pfizer Canada Inc., Montreal, QC, Canada) at Day 115 of pregnancy. Rates of cleavage (74.7%) and development to the blastocyst stage (37.2%) were comparable with that of embryos reconstructed with nontransfected cells from the same cell line. A total of 309 embryos were transferred to 5 recipients, of which 3 became pregnant and farrowed. Seven live and 1 stillborn piglets were delivered naturally. The presence of the introduced plasmid and the expression of the GFP transgene tag were confirmed by PCR in placental and umbilical tissues of all the piglets. Six cloned pigs have survived after weaning and exhibit no obvious morphological defects. The status of apo E gene expression is currently under investigation. Supported by a NSERC Discovery Grant to VB.

125 SWINE EMBRYOS WITH HIGH POTENTIAL TO DEVELOP IN VITRO HAVE LESS γH2A.X AND MORE NBS1 PROTEINS

The developmental potential of embryos produced in vitro is lower than those produced in vivo. The artificial environment and the stressful conditions of culture may affect embryo development through various mechanisms including DNA damage and, consequently, cell death. We hypothesized that the developmental competence of in vitro-cultured embryos is influenced by mechanisms signalling DNA damage and repair processes. Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess these processes by systematic quantification of phosphorylated histone H2A.X (γH2A.X) and p95 or nibrin protein (NSB1) in early- and late-cleaved swine embryos cultured in vitro. Studies from several groups including ours have demonstrated superior in vitro development for early-cleaved (within 24 h of culture) compared with late-cleaved (between 24 and 48 h) embryos. The presence of γH2A.X is associated with the DNA double-strand breaks, and NBS1 is involved in the process of DNA damage repair. These proteins were detected by both immunofluorescence and western blotting. Swine embryos were produced by parthenogenetic activation using in vitro-matured oocytes. Oocyte maturation, activation, and embryo culture were conducted as previously described (Che L et al. 2007 Theriogenology 67 1297-1304). At 24 and 48 h after activation, embryos were categorized as early- and late-cleaved, and were collected for protein detection on D2-3, D4-5, or D6-7 of culture. A minimum of 3 replicates were performed per treatment. The amount of protein in relation to the β-actin at D2-3, D4-5, and D6-7 as revealed by western blotting was 76.4% ± 1.3, 63.3% ± 10.5, and 43.2% ± 11.2 for γH2A.X and 60.2% ± 4.2, 67.3% ± 13.2, and 61.3% ± 6.2 for NBS1, respectively. Comparisons between early and late-cleaved groups were then performed by immunoflorescence detection of both proteins. Differences between groups were verified using Student’s t-test. The average proportion of cells that were positively stained for γH2AX at D2-3, D4-5, and D6-7 of culture was 64.4% ± 2.6 (n = 178) v. 65.92% ± 3.7 (n = 114; P = 0.7), 55.7% ± 2.4 (n = 121) v. 59.8% ± 4.7 (n = 62; P = 0.4) and 29.1% ± 2.1 (n = 137) v. 43.5% ± 3.4 (n = 41; P = 0.001), for early v. late-cleaved embryos. The values for NSB1 staining were 13.9% ± 3.8 (75) v. 3.9% ± 3.0 (34; P = 0.09), 50.5% ± 4.2 (66) v. 35.8% ± 6.0 (33; P = 0.05), and 51.0% ± 4.5 (n = 54) v. 38.2% ± 5.5 (n = 24; P = 0.1). These findings confirm the presence of γH2A.X and NBS1 proteins in swine embryos during all stages of in vitro culture. We further show that early cleaved embryos have a lower proportion of γH2A.X and a higher proportion of NSB1-positive cells compared with late-cleaved embryos. Together, these findings suggest that early cleaved embryos that have a superior capacity for in vitro development are better prepared to repair DNA damage during in vitro culture. Supported by NSERC.

CD81 expression on CD19+ peripheral blood lymphocytes is associated with chronic HCV disease and increased risk for HCV infection: a putative role for inflammatory cytokines

The level of CD81 cell surface expression, a cellular co-receptor for hepatitis C virus (HCV), is critical for productive HCV infection of host cells. In addition, the cross-linking of HCV-E2 protein to CD81 can alter the function of T and B lymphocytes as well as that of NK cells by interfering with the activation signalling pathway. The down-regulation of CD81 expression on peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) has been associated to effective therapy of HCV infection. The aim of the present study is to quantitatively assess the levels of CD81 expression in PBL from HCV-infected patients compared to subjects at high risk for HCV infection such as HIV-infected individuals or patients with Porphyria Cutanea Tarda (PCT). The expression of CD81 was quantified by flow-cytometry using Phycoerythrin-labelled standard beads. Determination of CD81 was performed on CD3+ and CD19+ lymphocytes from 34 healthy controls, 51 patients with HCV infection and different clinical outcomes [these included HCV-RNA-negative subjects (8), patients with chronic active hepatitis (16), recipients of liver transplantation under immunosuppressive therapy (12), a subgroup with concomitant HIV infection (9) or concomitant PCT (6)]. In addition, 60 HIV-infected subjects and 4 patients with PCT were studied. The putative role of inflammatory cytokines in modulating CD81 was explored in vitro by assessing the effect of IL-6 or IFN-gamma on cultured human hepatocytes. A significant increase of the CD81 expression was found on CD19+ lymphocytes in association with either HIV or HCV infection, as compared to the control group. Immunosuppressive therapy with FK506, subsequent to liver transplantation, restored CD81 expression at normal levels. Data gathered in vitro using the WRL 68 hepatocytic cell line confirmed that inflammatory cytokines can up-regulate CD81 expression in liver cell inclusion. Our data suggest that CD81 up-regulation can increase the risk of HCV infection, particularly in HIV-infected subjects. In addition, the results strongly suggest that the cytokines released by activated lymphocytes at sites of inflammation may play a part in up-regulating CD81 expression.

Release of Palladium from Biomechanical Prostheses in Body Fluids Can Induce or Support PD-Specific IFNγ T Cell Responses and the Clinical Setting of a Palladium Hypersensitivity

The increased use of Palladium (Pd) for biomedical applications, which has more than doubled in the last ten years, appears to be associated with an increased frequency of adverse reactions to Pd. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the implant of a biomechanical apparatus containing Pd and the setting of a hypersensitivity to Pd by determining the levels of the metal released in biological fluids, assessing the effects of Pd on peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cytokine production and exploring the clinical setting of skin sensitization. Of a total of 3,093 subjects examined in 2006, sensitization to Pd alone or in association with nickel (Ni) was observed in 1.6% and 13.03% of the individuals, respectively. Of these, a group of six subjects positive to Pd and negative to Ni at patch testing were selected on the basis of the oral clinical symptoms in order to measure both the levels of Pd in biological fluids and the degradation of the dental prostheses. Specific Pd measurements were carried out on salivary fluid, urine and serum samples by High Resolution Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry. In addition, the degradation of the dental prostheses was assessed by both a “leaching test” and an analysis of the micro morphology of orthodontic prostheses. The induction of IFN-γ production by Pd was assessed in PBMC by the ELISpot assay. Skin sensitization to Pd was evaluated by patch testing and clinical examination. Ten healthy subjects were comparatively tested as controls. We found a specific induction of an IFN-γ response by Pd in PBMC collected from all the subjects positive to Pd at patch testing. On the contrary, control subjects did not show any response to Pd as assessed by IFN-γ ELISpot assay or by skin testing. Remarkably, the levels of Pd in all biological samples (saliva, sera, urine) were significantly higher in Pd-sensitized patients than in those collected from controls, reaching the highest concentrations in the urine. The leaching studies gave additional evidence that the dental appliances can release measurable levels of Pd in saliva. Oral clinical symptoms in patients with Pd dental prostheses were associated with measurable levels of Pd in the biological fluids, the induction of Pd-specific IFN-γ responses in PBMC and the clinical evidence of skin sensitization to Pd. These data suggest that dental appliances may represent an active source of Pd in the body, and this, in turn, can favour the clinical setting of a hypersensitivity to this metal.

Protein profile and alpha-lactalbumin concentration in the milk of standard and transgenic goats expressing recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase

The expression of recombinant proteins of pharmaceutical interest in the milk of transgenic farm animals can result in phenotypes exhibiting compromised lactation performance, as a result of the extraordinary demand placed on the mammary gland. In this study, we investigated differences in the protein composition of milk from control and transgenic goats expressing recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase. In Experiment 1, the milk was characterized by gel electrophoresis and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry in order to identify protein bands that were uniquely visible in the transgenic milk and/or at differing band densities compared with controls. Differences in protein content were additionally evaluated by computer assisted band densitometry. Proteins identified in the transgenic milk only included serum proteins (i.e. complement component 3b, ceruloplasmin), a cytoskeleton protein (i.e. actin) and a stress-induced protein (94 kDA glucose-regulated protein). Proteins exhibiting evident differences in band density between the transgenic and control groups included immunoglobulins, serum albumin, beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin. These results were found to be indicative of compromised epithelial tight junctions, premature mammary cell death, and protein synthesis stress resulting from transgene expression. In Experiment 2, the concentration of alpha-lactalbumin was determined using the IDRing assay and was found to be significantly reduced on day 1 of lactation in transgenic goats (4.33 +/- 0.97 vs. 2.24 +/- 0.25 mg/ml, P < 0.01), but was not different from non-transgenic controls by day 30 (0.99 +/- 0.46 vs. 0.90 +/- 0.11 mg/ml, P > 0.05). We concluded that a decreased/delayed expression of the alpha-lactalbumin gene may be the cause for the delayed start of milk production observed in this herd of transgenic goats.

Maternally encoded stem-loop-binding protein is degraded in 2-cell mouse embryos by the co-ordinated activity of two separately regulated pathways

Oocytes accumulate mRNAs and proteins that direct early embryonic development. Although subsequent development requires the timely degradation of these maternal products, little is known of the underlying mechanisms. The stem-loop-binding protein (SLBP), which regulates the stability and translation of mRNAs encoding histones and is synthesized during S-phase and degraded during G2 in somatic cells, accumulates during oogenesis. Maternal SLBP is required for mouse embryos to develop beyond the 2-cell stage, but must be degraded to allow the cell-cycle-regulated expression of somatic cells to be established. We report that the quantity of maternal SLBP changes little following fertilization until 44-52 h post-hCG, corresponding to mid-/late G2 of the 2-cell stage, when it decreases by 75%. Efficient degradation requires two pathways. The first requires activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (cdk) and embryonic transcription, preferentially targets nuclear SLBP, and likely corresponds to the pathway that degrades SLBP at G2 in somatic cells. The second does not require cdk activity or transcription and becomes active at 44-52 h post-hCG independently of cell-cycle progression to mid-/late G2, but is not solely regulated by the time elapsed since hCG injection. Thus, the co-ordinated activity of two separately regulated pathways eliminates maternally encoded SLBP from early mouse embryos.

[Fiberoptic bronchoscopy as diagnostic tool in primitive lung cancer]

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the diagnostic role of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in primitive lung cancers in relation to the sensibility, the specificity and the cost of the examination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analysed the diagnostic flow-charts of 473 patients with suspected primitive lung cancer consecutively examined during a period of 4 years (2003-2006). The results were analysed comparing patients observed in the period 2003-2004 with those observed during 2005-2006. The number and type of samples collected and the protocols utilized were considered.

RESULTS

In overall patients the reliability of the fiberoptic bronchoscopy was 61.7%, with a significant increase from 47.5% in 2003-2004 to 74.4% in 2005-2006. An important role in improving the diagnostic relevance of the exam was assumed by the more frequent adoption of biopsies and trans-bronchial needle aspiration on parenchyma and mediastinal lymph nodes.

CONCLUSIONS

The fiberoptic-bronchoscopy associated to advanced tissue sampling techniques represents the gold standard for the diagnosis of lung cancer, due to high sensitivity and specificity and moderate cost.

[IL-2 bronchoscopic istillation and immune cell activation: preliminary results of the BRIIL-2 study for treatment of pulmonary metastasis from renal cancer and melanoma]

BRIIL-2 is a clinical study for evaluation of efficacy and toxicity of third line treatment of pulmonary metastasis from renal cancer and melanoma with flexible bronchoscopic istillation of IL-2. Moreover, we evaluate local (BALT) and peripheral lymphocytic activation during this IL-2 administration. Up today we enrolled two patients with pulmonary metastasis from renal cancer already treated with two lines of molecular therapy, chemotherapy or systemic immunotherapy. Regarding to immunologic stimulation, lymphocytic fraction decreased from 21 to 2% in the first and from 10.5 to 6% in the second patient, indicating lymphocytic enrollment for activation, while TCD4/CD8 ratio is stable. In both patients we also observed a significant increase of HLA-DR in T lymphocytes (CD3) either in BAL or in peripheral blood. No significant major toxicities were observed after broncho-istillation, even if the dose was progressively increased. Thus IL-2 broncho-istillation could represent a valid administration modality to obtain an effective immunologic stimulation either local or systemic.

Developmental regulation of histone H3 methylation at lysine 4 in the porcine ovary

Follicular growth and oogenesis involve highly dynamic changes in morphogenesis, chromatin structure, and gene transcription. The tight coordination of these events leads to ovulation of a mature oocyte and formation of the luteal tissue necessary to regulate embryo implantation and development. This entire process is regulated by numerous endocrine and in situ mechanisms. The role of epigenetic mechanisms in folliculogenesis, such as the biochemical modification of the DNA packaging proteins, the histones, is not well understood. Our objective was to determine the cellular and follicular stage-specific patterns of histone H3 methylation at lysine 4 (K4) in porcine preovulatory follicles and during luteinization in pig ovaries. Ovary tissues were collected from slaughtered prepubertal and cyclic gilts at various stages of the estrous cycle, pregnancy, and from ovaries recovered from gonatropin-treated gilts at 0, 24, and 38 h post human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) injection. Samples were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and processed for embedding in paraffin and sectioned using standard histological protocols. Immunofluorescent staining was performed on 3 microm thick sections. The immunostaining pattern of mono-, di-, and tri-methylated histone H3-K4 and lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1, also known as KDM1 or AOF1) was assessed. Interestingly, H3-K4 mono-, di-, and tri-methylation in follicles of prepubertal gilts was specifically distributed and developmentally regulated. While granulosa cells of primary, secondary, and early antral follicles were negative for H3-K4 methylation those from large antral follicles showed a striking upregulation in the cells located in the proximity to the oocyte. Specifically, the cumulus oophorus displayed intense staining for H3-K4 methylation and signals were strongest in the granulosa cells in the inner two cell layers of the follicular wall. Although all oocytes from primary to large antral stage follicles were positive for H3-K4 mono-, di-, and tri-methylation, the patterns of distribution were altered through oocyte follicle development. H3-K4 methylation in granulosa cells was dramatically reduced as time to ovulation approached and was low to undetected at 38 h post hCG treatment. H3-K4 mono-, di-, and tri-methylation in large luteal cells increased as differentiation evolved but remained low in small luteal cells. Strikingly, LSD1 (KDM1) expression was found to be restricted to the corpus luteum. In summary, this study provides new information on histone H3-K4 methylation patterns in the oocyte and follicle during folliculogenesis, which suggests that these epigenetic markers serve an essential regulatory role during folliculogenesis.

Serum cytokines and bioumoral immunological characterization of psoriatic patients in long term etanercept treatment

The purpose of this study is to evaluate blood cytokines and immunological parameters in psoriatic patients during long-term treatment with Etanercept. Forty-five subjects of both sexes affected by psoriasis with or without arthritis entered the study and were treated with Etanercept according to international standard protocols. Biochemical blood analysis was carried out at baseline and during follow-up every second month. In particular, the following parameters were kept under control: antinuclear antibodies, anti-nDNA antibodies, anti-histone antibodies, blood cell count, circulating lymphocyte subtypes (CD3, CD4, CD8, CD16, CD19) and IgE. Cytokine profiles (IL-1-alpha, IL-1-beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, INF, TNF-alpha) were also evaluated in blood samples during the treatment up to 1 year of follow-up. A significant decrease in PASI score (p < 0.01) and in several cytokine levels was observed, particularly in IL-1, IL-6, IFN-gamma (p < 0.01) and to a lesser extent in TNF-alpha (p < 0.05). No statistically significant changes were recorded after 1 year of follow-up in blood immunological parameters, in particular in ANA titre, CD4/CD8 ratio, IgE levels, CD16, CD19 and eosinophils count. In conclusion, long-term treatment with Etanercept leads not only to a significant improvement in PASI score, but also to significant changes (reduction) in several proinflammatory and modulatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of the disease; on the other hand, there are no effects on immunological or bioumoral parameters showing that etanercept modulates rather than suppresses the physiological responses during psoriasis treatment.

Identification of differentially expressed genes in a porcine in vivo model of adipogenesis using suppression subtractive hybridization

Although they provide valuable information, in vitro models of adipocyte development often require high doses of hormones and growth factors, which may influence gene expression and adipocyte differentiation patterns. To overcome these problems, a novel in vivo model of adipose tissue development was used to characterize genes involved in adipogenesis. The suppression subtractive hybridization technique was used to identify genes showing differential expression between the adipose tissue of a day 90 gestating sow, which is enriched in adipocytes, and day 90 fetal adipose tissue, which is enriched in preadipocytes. A total of 149 expressed sequence tags corresponding to identified genes and tentative consensus sequences emerged. Thirty-seven clones matched expressed sequence tags or genomic DNA sequences and six novel sequences were also identified. Adipogenesis-related genes were identified, many of which have never been reported to be expressed in mammalian adipose tissue, and may play a role in regulation of adipose tissue differentiation. Validation of differentially expressed genes was confirmed for perilipin, monocyte to macrophage differentiation-associated, myocilin, paraoxonase 3, stearoyl-CoA desaturase, angiotensinogen and adiponectin genes using real-time RT-PCR.

Adiponectin enhances in vitro development of swine embryos

Recent studies have shown that factors from adipose tissue influence and regulate the reproductive system. Hormones such as leptin and resistin are now known to regulate several reproductive processes. Adiponectin is the most abundant protein secreted by adipose tissue, and its circulating concentration is inversely related to adiposity and body mass index. Little is known about the involvement of adiponectin in reproduction. In the present study, the effect of recombinant adiponectin on the meiotic maturation and early embryo development in vitro was investigated, using porcine oocytes. Adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, were found to be expressed in porcine oocytes and cumulus cells of both small and large follicles. Both AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 were immunolocalized to cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), oocytes, and early developing embryos. When included in oocyte maturation medium for 46 h, adiponectin significantly decreased the frequency of meiotic immature oocytes derived from large follicles (3-6 mm) but not from small follicles (<3mm). From studies of oocytes matured in the presence of adiponectin and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway inhibitors MEK1 (PD98059), MEK1/2 (U0126), and p38MAPK (SB203580) it was concluded that adiponectin enhances oocyte maturation thought the p38MAPK pathway. Finally, a superior rate of embryo development to the blastocyst stage was achieved by embryos cultured in the presence of adiponectin. These results indicate that adiponectin has a positive effect on the meiotic maturation and in vitro embryo development of porcine oocytes and suggests a physiological role for this adipokine in early development in mammals.