A genome-wide screen identifies conserved protein hubs required for cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion

A genome-wide screen identifies 17 regulatory hubs that modulate the levels of the core cadherin–catenin complex and coordinate cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion.

Cadherins and associated catenins provide an important structural interface between neighboring cells, the actin cytoskeleton, and intracellular signaling pathways in a variety of cell types throughout the Metazoa. However, the full inventory of the proteins and pathways required for cadherin-mediated adhesion has not been established. To this end, we completed a genome-wide (∼14,000 genes) ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) screen that targeted Ca²⁺-dependent adhesion in DE-cadherin–expressing Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells in suspension culture. This novel screen eliminated Ca²⁺-independent cell–cell adhesion, integrin-based adhesion, cell spreading, and cell migration. We identified 17 interconnected regulatory hubs, based on protein functions and protein–protein interactions that regulate the levels of the core cadherin–catenin complex and coordinate cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion. Representative proteins from these hubs were analyzed further in Drosophila oogenesis, using targeted germline RNAi, and adhesion was analyzed in Madin–Darby canine kidney mammalian epithelial cell–cell adhesion. These experiments reveal roles for a diversity of cellular pathways that are required for cadherin function in Metazoa, including cytoskeleton organization, cell–substrate interactions, and nuclear and cytoplasmic signaling.

Nek2 phosphorylates and stabilizes β-catenin at mitotic centrosomes downstream of Plk1

β-Catenin is a multifunctional protein with critical roles in cell-cell adhesion, Wnt signaling, and the centrosome cycle. Whereas the regulation of β-catenin in cell-cell adhesion and Wnt signaling are well understood, how β-catenin is regulated at the centrosome is not. NIMA-related protein kinase 2 (Nek2), which regulates centrosome disjunction/splitting, binds to and phosphorylates β-catenin. Using in vitro and cell-based assays, we show that Nek2 phosphorylates the same regulatory sites in the N-terminus of β-catenin as glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), which are recognized by a specific phospho-S33/S37/T41 antibody, as well as additional sites. Nek2 binding to β-catenin appears to inhibit binding of the E3 ligase β-TrCP and prevents β-catenin ubiquitination and degradation. Thus β-catenin phosphorylated by Nek2 is stabilized and accumulates at centrosomes in mitosis. We further show that polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) regulates Nek2 phosphorylation and stabilization of β-catenin. Taken together, these results identify a novel mechanism for regulating β-catenin stability that is independent of GSK3β and provide new insight into a pathway involving Plk1, Nek2, and β-catenin that regulates the centrosome cycle.

Galvanotactic control of collective cell migration in epithelial monolayers

Many normal and pathological biological processes involve the migration of epithelial cell sheets. This arises from complex emergent behaviour resulting from the interplay between cellular signalling networks and the forces that physically couple the cells. Here, we demonstrate that collective migration of an epithelium can be interactively guided by applying electric fields that bias the underlying signalling networks. We show that complex, spatiotemporal cues are locally interpreted by the epithelium, resulting in rapid, coordinated responses such as a collective U-turn, divergent migration, and unchecked migration against an obstacle. We observed that the degree of external control depends on the size and shape of the cell population, and on the existence of physical coupling between cells. Together, our results offer design and engineering principles for the rational manipulation of the collective behaviour and material properties of a tissue.

Different roles of cadherins in the assembly and structural integrity of the desmosome complex

Adhesion between cells is established by the formation of specialized intercellular junctional complexes, such as desmosomes. Desmosomes contain isoforms of two members of the cadherin superfamily of cell adhesion proteins, desmocollins (Dsc) and desmogleins (Dsg), but their combinatorial roles in desmosome assembly are not understood. To uncouple desmosome assembly from other cell-cell adhesion complexes, we used micro-patterned substrates of Dsc2aFc and/or Dsg2Fc and collagen IV; we show that Dsc2aFc, but not Dsg2Fc, was necessary and sufficient to recruit desmosome-specific desmoplakin into desmosome puncta and produce strong adhesive binding. Single-molecule force spectroscopy showed that monomeric Dsc2a, but not Dsg2, formed Ca(2+)-dependent homophilic bonds, and that Dsg2 formed Ca(2+)-independent heterophilic bonds with Dsc2a. A W2A mutation in Dsc2a inhibited Ca(2+)-dependent homophilic binding, similar to classical cadherins, and Dsc2aW2A, but not Dsg2W2A, was excluded from desmosomes in MDCK cells. These results indicate that Dsc2a, but not Dsg2, is required for desmosome assembly through homophilic Ca(2+)- and W2-dependent binding, and that Dsg2 might be involved later in regulating a switch to Ca(2+)-independent adhesion in mature desmosomes.

Fabricating surfaces with distinct geometries and different combinations of cell adhesion proteins

A step-by-step procedure is described for functionalizing the surface of a glass coverslip so that a single cell contacts distinct patterns of extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesion proteins. This dual-micropatterned substratum is accomplished through a two-step process. First, extracellular matrix (ECM) is microcontact-printed onto a silanized glass surface using electron beam lithography, etched resist-coated wafers, and Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamps of differing geometries. Then, non-ECM-coated surfaces are incubated sequentially with biotin, NeutrAvidin, and biotinylated Protein A to attach Fc-cadherin fusion proteins, Fc, or PEG. Cells are seeded at low density onto the functionalized surface for single-cell analysis of protein recruitment/turnover and cellular motility.

Sept7b is essential for pronephric function and development of left-right asymmetry in zebrafish embryogenesis

The conserved septin family of filamentous small GTPases plays important roles in mitosis, cell migration and cell morphogenesis by forming scaffolds and diffusion barriers. Recent studies in cultured cells in vitro indicate that a septin complex of septin 2, 7 and 9 is required for ciliogenesis and cilia function, but septin function in ciliogenesis in vertebrate organs in vivo is not understood. We show that sept7b is expressed in ciliated cells in different tissues during early zebrafish development. Knockdown of sept7b by using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides caused misorientation of basal bodies and cilia, reduction of apical actin and the shortening of motile cilia in Kupffer's vesicle and pronephric tubules. This resulted in pericardial and yolk sac edema, body axis curvature and hydrocephaly. Notably, in sept7b morphants we detected strong left-right asymmetry defects in the heart and lateral plate mesoderm (situs inversus), reduced fluid flow in the kidney, the formation of kidney cysts and loss of glomerular filtration barrier function. Thus, sept7b is essential during zebrafish development for pronephric function and ciliogenesis, and loss of expression of sept7b results in defects that resemble human ciliopathies.

Evolution and cell physiology. 3. Using Dictyostelium discoideum to investigate mechanisms of epithelial polarity

In Metazoa, a polarized epithelium forms a single-cell-layered barrier that separates the outside from the inside of the organism. In tubular epithelia, the apical side of the cell is constricted relative to the basal side, forming a wedge-shaped cell that can pack into a tube. Apical constriction is mediated by actomyosin activity. In higher animals, apical actomyosin is connected between cells by specialized cell-cell junctions that contain a classical cadherin, the Wnt signaling protein β-catenin, and the actin-binding protein α-catenin. The molecular mechanisms that lead to selective accumulation of myosin at the apical surface of cells are poorly understood. We found that the nonmetazoan Dictyostelium discoideum forms a polarized epithelium that surrounds the stalk tube at the tip of the multicellular fruiting body. Although D. discoideum lacks a cadherin homolog, it expresses homologs of β- and α-catenin. Both catenins are essential for formation of the tip epithelium, polarized protein secretion, and proper multicellular morphogenesis. Myosin localizes apically in tip epithelial cells, and it appears that constriction of this epithelial tube is required for proper morphogenesis. Localization of myosin II is controlled by the protein IQGAP1 and its binding partners cortexillins I and II, which function downstream of α- and β-catenin to exclude myosin from the basolateral cortex and promote apical accumulation of myosin. These studies show that the function of catenins in cell polarity predates the evolution of Wnt signaling and classical cadherins, and that apical localization of myosin is a morphogenetic mechanism conserved from nonmetazoans to vertebrates.

αE-catenin actin-binding domain alters actin filament conformation and regulates binding of nucleation and disassembly factors

αE-catenin regulates transitions in actin organization between cell migration and cell–cell adhesion by controlling barbed-end polymerization of unbranched actin filaments and inhibiting Arp2/3 complex and cofilin regulation of actin filament branching and disassembly.

The actin-binding protein αE-catenin may contribute to transitions between cell migration and cell–cell adhesion that depend on remodeling the actin cytoskeleton, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We show that the αE-catenin actin-binding domain (ABD) binds cooperatively to individual actin filaments and that binding is accompanied by a conformational change in the actin protomer that affects filament structure. αE-catenin ABD binding limits barbed-end growth, especially in actin filament bundles. αE-catenin ABD inhibits actin filament branching by the Arp2/3 complex and severing by cofilin, both of which contact regions of the actin protomer that are structurally altered by αE-catenin ABD binding. In epithelial cells, there is little correlation between the distribution of αE-catenin and the Arp2/3 complex at developing cell–cell contacts. Our results indicate that αE-catenin binding to filamentous actin favors assembly of unbranched filament bundles that are protected from severing over more dynamic, branched filament arrays.

Single molecule imaging reveals a major role for diffusion in the exploration of ciliary space by signaling receptors

The dynamic organization of signaling cascades inside primary cilia is key to signal propagation. Yet little is known about the dynamics of ciliary membrane proteins besides a possible role for motor-driven Intraflagellar Transport (IFT). To characterize these dynamics, we imaged single molecules of Somatostatin Receptor 3 (SSTR3, a GPCR) and Smoothened (Smo, a Hedgehog signal transducer) in the ciliary membrane. While IFT trains moved processively from one end of the cilium to the other, single SSTR3 and Smo underwent mostly diffusive behavior interspersed with short periods of directional movements. Statistical subtraction of instant velocities revealed that SSTR3 and Smo spent less than a third of their time undergoing active transport. Finally, SSTR3 and IFT movements could be uncoupled by perturbing either membrane protein diffusion or active transport. Thus ciliary membrane proteins move predominantly by diffusion, and attachment to IFT trains is transient and stochastic rather than processive or spatially determined.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00654.001

Primary cilia are tiny protrusions from the cell surface, which have a central role in processing sensory stimuli, such as light or odorants. Cilia are also involved in mediating the response to developmental signaling molecules, including Sonic Hedgehog, and may help to convert mechanical signals into electrical or chemical ones. Primary cilia are made up of an axoneme—a core structure that consists of microtubules extending along the length of the cilium—ensheathed by a membrane that contains a number of receptor proteins.

These receptor proteins travel up and down the cilium, and it is generally assumed that an active process known as intraflagellar transport is responsible for their movement. This process is mediated by motor proteins called kinesins and dyneins, which carry cargo proteins along axonemal microtubules. However, it has been difficult to study the transport of individual receptor proteins directly because they are uniformly distributed over the membranes of the cilia.

Now, Ye et al. have shown that intraflagellar transport is not the most important mode of transport for membrane proteins within primary cilia. By labelling individual receptors with a fluorescent dye and then filming their movements under a microscope, Ye et al. found that the receptors generally did not show the directed, linear motion that would be expected from intraflagellar transport. Instead, much of their movement occurred through passive diffusion, with occasional short bursts of directed motion.

To investigate how rapidly receptor molecules could move through the cilium in this way, Ye et al. used a technique called fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). This involves using light to bleach the fluorescent dye attached to receptor molecules in part of the cilium, and then measuring how long it takes for the fluorescence to return as a result of other labelled molecules moving into the bleached area: the shorter this time, the faster the movement of the molecules. It took less than a minute for fluorescence to be restored within a primary cilium, indicating that passive diffusion with occasional active transport can move proteins rapidly through the structure.

By using drugs to inhibit intraflagellar transport, Ye et al. confirmed that the majority of membrane protein transport within primary cilia occurs via diffusion. Further studies are now required to determine whether this is also the case for other molecules that travel along cilia, and whether intraflagellar transport may have a more important role in the assembly of these structures.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00654.002

Microactuator device for integrated measurement of epithelium mechanics

Mechanical forces are among important factors that drive cellular function and organization. We present a microfabricated device with on-chip actuation for mechanical testing of single cells. An integrated immersible electrostatic actuator system is demonstrated that applies calibrated forces to cells. We conduct stretching experiments by directly applying forces to epithelial cells adhered to device surfaces functionalized with collagen. We measure mechanical properties including stiffness, hysteresis and visco-elasticity of adherent cells.

β-catenin at the centrosome: discrete pools of β-catenin communicate during mitosis and may co-ordinate centrosome functions and cell cycle progression

Beta-catenin is a multifunctional protein with critical roles in cell-cell adhesion, Wnt-signaling and the centrosome cycle. Whereas the roles of β-catenin in cell-cell adhesion and Wnt-signaling have been studied extensively, the mechanism(s) involving β-catenin in centrosome functions are poorly understood. β-Catenin localizes to centrosomes and promotes mitotic progression. NIMA-related protein kinase 2 (Nek2), which stimulates centrosome separation, binds to and phosphorylates β-catenin. β-Catenin interacting proteins involved in Wnt signaling such as adenomatous polyposis coli, Axin, and GSK3β, are also localized at centrosomes and play roles in promoting mitotic progression. Additionally, proteins associated with cell-cell adhesion sites, such as dynein, regulate mitotic spindle positioning. These roles of proteins at the cell cortex and Wnt signaling that involve β-catenin indicate a cross-talk between different sub-cellular sites in the cell at mitosis, and that different pools of β-catenin may co-ordinate centrosome functions and cell cycle progression.

Danio rerio αE-catenin is a monomeric F-actin binding protein with distinct properties from Mus musculus αE-catenin

It is unknown whether homologs of the cadherin·catenin complex have conserved structures and functions across the Metazoa. Mammalian αE-catenin is an allosterically regulated actin-binding protein that binds the cadherin·β-catenin complex as a monomer and whose dimerization potentiates F-actin association. We tested whether these functional properties are conserved in another vertebrate, the zebrafish Danio rerio. Here we show, despite 90% sequence identity, that Danio rerio and Mus musculus αE-catenin have striking functional differences. We demonstrate that D. rerio αE-catenin is monomeric by size exclusion chromatography, native PAGE, and small angle x-ray scattering. D. rerio αE-catenin binds F-actin in cosedimentation assays as a monomer and as an α/β-catenin heterodimer complex. D. rerio αE-catenin also bundles F-actin, as shown by negative stained transmission electron microscopy, and does not inhibit Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin nucleation in bulk polymerization assays. Thus, core properties of α-catenin function, F-actin and β-catenin binding, are conserved between mouse and zebrafish. We speculate that unique regulatory properties have evolved to match specific developmental requirements.

Roles of cadherins and catenins in cell-cell adhesion and epithelial cell polarity

A simple epithelium is the building block of all metazoans and a multicellular stage of a nonmetazoan. It comprises a closed monolayer of quiescent cells that surround a luminal space. Cells are held together by cell-cell adhesion complexes and surrounded by extracellular matrix. These extracellular contacts are required for the formation of a polarized organization of plasma membrane proteins that regulate the directional absorption and secretion of ions, proteins, and other solutes. While advances have been made in understanding how proteins are sorted to different plasma membrane domains, less is known about how cell-cell adhesion is regulated and linked to the development of epithelial cell polarity and regulation of homeostasis.

The evolutionary origin of epithelial cell-cell adhesion mechanisms

A simple epithelium forms a barrier between the outside and the inside of an organism, and is the first organized multicellular tissue found in evolution. We examine the relationship between the evolution of epithelia and specialized cell-cell adhesion proteins comprising the classical cadherin/β-catenin/α-catenin complex (CCC). A review of the divergent functional properties of the CCC in metazoans and non-metazoans, and an updated phylogenetic coverage of the CCC using recent genomic data reveal: (1) The core CCC likely originated before the last common ancestor of unikonts and their closest bikont sister taxa. (2) Formation of the CCC may have constrained sequence evolution of the classical cadherin cytoplasmic domain and β-catenin in metazoa. (3) The α-catenin-binding domain in β-catenin appears to be the favored mutation site for disrupting β-catenin function in the CCC. (4) The ancestral function of the α/β-catenin heterodimer appears to be an actin-binding module. In some metazoan groups, more complex functions of α-catenin were gained by sequence divergence in the non-actin-binding (N-, M-) domains. (5) Allosteric regulation of α-catenin may have evolved for more complex regulation of the actin cytoskeleton.

An epithelial tissue in Dictyostelium challenges the traditional origin of metazoan multicellularity

We hypothesize that aspects of animal multicellularity originated before the divergence of metazoans from fungi and social amoebae. Polarized epithelial tissues are a defining feature of metazoans and contribute to the diversity of animal body plans. The recent finding of a polarized epithelium in the non-metazoan social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum demonstrates that epithelial tissue is not a unique feature of metazoans, and challenges the traditional paradigm that multicellularity evolved independently in social amoebae and metazoans. An alternative view, presented here, is that the common ancestor of social amoebae, fungi, and animals spent a portion of its life cycle in a multicellular state and possessed molecular machinery necessary for forming an epithelial tissue. Some descendants of this ancestor retained multicellularity, while others reverted to unicellularity. This hypothesis makes testable predictions regarding tissue organization in close relatives of metazoans and provides a novel conceptual framework for studies of early animal evolution.

α-catenin and IQGAP regulate myosin localization to control epithelial tube morphogenesis in Dictyostelium

Apical actomyosin activity in animal epithelial cells influences tissue morphology and drives morphogenetic movements during development. The molecular mechanisms leading to myosin II accumulation at the apical membrane and its exclusion from other membranes are poorly understood. We show that in the nonmetazoan Dictyostelium discoideum, myosin II localizes apically in tip epithelial cells that surround the stalk, and constriction of this epithelial tube is required for proper morphogenesis. IQGAP1 and its binding partner cortexillin I function downstream of α- and β-catenin to exclude myosin II from the basolateral cortex and promote apical accumulation of myosin II. Deletion of IQGAP1 or cortexillin compromises epithelial morphogenesis without affecting cell polarity. These results reveal that apical localization of myosin II is a conserved morphogenetic mechanism from nonmetazoans to vertebrates and identify a hierarchy of proteins that regulate the polarity and organization of an epithelial tube in a simple model organism.

Competitive regulation of E-cadherin juxtamembrane domain degradation by p120-catenin binding and Hakai-mediated ubiquitination

p120-Catenin binding to, and Hakai-mediated ubiquitination of the E-cadherin juxtamembrane domain (JMD) are thought to be involved in regulating E-cadherin internalization and degradation. However, the relationship between these two pathways is not understood. We targeted the E-cadherin JMD to mitochondria (WT-JMD) to isolate this domain from the plasma membrane and internalization, and to examine protein modifications and degradation. WT-JMD localized to mitochondria, but did not accumulate there except when proteasome activity was inhibited. We found WT-JMD was ubiquitinated, and arginine substitution of lysines at position 5 (K5R) and 83 (K83R) resulted in the stable accumulation of mutant JMD at mitochondria. p120-Catenin did not localize, or bind to WT-JMD even upon proteasome inhibition, whereas the K5,83R-JMD mutant bound and localized p120-catenin to mitochondria. Mutation of the p120-catenin binding site in combination with these lysine mutations inhibited p120-catenin binding, but did not decrease JMD stability or its accumulation at mitochondria. Thus, increased stability of JMD lysine mutants was due to inhibition of ubiquitination and not to p120-catenin binding. Finally, mutation of these critical lysines in full length E-cadherin had similar effects on protein stability as WT-JMD. Our results indicate that ubiquitination of the JMD inhibits p120-catenin binding, and targets E-cadherin for degradation.

Adherens junction function and regulation during zebrafish gastrulation

The adherens junction (AJ) comprises multi-protein complexes required for cell-cell adhesion in embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis. Mutations in key proteins and mis-regulation of AJ adhesive properties can lead to pathologies such as cancer. In recent years, the zebrafish has become an excellent model organism to integrate cell biology in the context of a multicellular organization. The combination of classical genetic approaches with new tools for live imaging and biophysical approaches has revealed new aspects of AJ biology, particularly during zebrafish gastrulation. These studies have resulted in progress in understanding the relationship between cell-cell adhesion, cell migration and plasma membrane blebbing.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK) regulates adenomatous polyposis coli during growth-factor-induced cell extension

Regulation of the microtubule- and actin-binding protein adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) is crucial for the formation of cell extensions in many cell types. This process requires inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), which otherwise phosphorylates APC and decreases APC-mediated microtubule bundling. Although it is assumed, therefore, that APC phosphorylation is decreased during initiation of cell extensions, the phosphorylation state of APC has never been analyzed directly. We show here that NGF- and EGF-induced initial cell extensions result in APC phosphorylation by the MAPK/ERK pathway, which, in parallel with inhibition of GSK-3β, promotes localization of APC to the tip of cell extensions. Whereas GSK-3β inhibition promotes APC binding and stabilization of microtubules, we show that phosphorylation by ERK inhibits the interaction of APC with F-actin, and APC-mediated F-actin bundling, but not APC-mediated microtubule bundling, in vitro. These results identify a previously unknown APC regulatory pathway during growth-factor-induced cell extension, and indicate that the GSK-3β and ERK pathways act in parallel to regulate interactions between APC and the cytoskeleton during the formation of cell extensions.

αE-catenin regulates cell-cell adhesion and membrane blebbing during zebrafish epiboly

αE-catenin is an actin-binding protein associated with the E-cadherin-based adherens junction that regulates cell-cell adhesion. Recent studies identified additional E-cadherin-independent roles of αE-catenin in regulating plasma membrane dynamics and cell migration. However, little is known about the roles of αE-catenin in these different cellular processes in vivo during early vertebrate development. Here, we examined the functions of αE-catenin in cell-cell adhesion, cell migration and plasma membrane dynamics during morphogenetic processes that drive epiboly in early Danio rerio (zebrafish) development. We show that depletion of αE-catenin caused a defect in radial intercalation that was associated with decreased cell-cell adhesion, in a similar manner to E-cadherin depletion. Depletion of αE-catenin also caused deep cells to have protracted plasma membrane blebbing, and a defect in plasma membrane recruitment of ERM proteins that are involved in controlling membrane-to-cortex attachment and membrane blebbing. Significantly, depletion of both E-cadherin and αE-catenin suppressed plasma membrane blebbing. We suggest that during radial intercalation the activities of E-cadherin and αE-catenin in the maintenance of membrane-to-cortex attachment are balanced, resulting in stabilization of cell-cell adhesion and suppression of membrane blebbing, thereby enabling proper radial intercalation.

Protein evolution in cell and tissue development: going beyond sequence and transcriptional analysis

Studies of animal evolution often focus on sequence and transcriptional analysis, based on an assumption that the evolution of development is driven by changes in gene expression. We argue that biochemical and cell biological approaches are also required, because sequence-conserved proteins can have different biochemical, cellular, and developmental properties.

Ciliary diffusion barrier: the gatekeeper for the primary cilium compartment

The primary cilium is a cellular antenna that detects and transmits chemical and mechanical cues in the environment through receptors and downstream signal proteins enriched along the ciliary membrane. While it is known that ciliary membrane proteins enter the cilium by way of vesicular and intraflagellar transport, less is known about how ciliary membrane proteins are retained in, and how apical membrane proteins are excluded from the cilium. Here, we review evidence for a membrane diffusion barrier at the base of the primary cilium, and highlight the recent finding of a septin cytoskeleton diffusion barrier. We also discuss candidate ciliopathy genes that may be involved in formation of the barrier, and the role of a diffusion barrier as a common mechanism for compartmentalizing membranes and lipid domains.

A polarized epithelium organized by beta- and alpha-catenin predates cadherin and metazoan origins

A fundamental characteristic of metazoans is the formation of a simple, polarized epithelium. In higher animals, the structural integrity and functional polarization of simple epithelia require a cell-cell adhesion complex that contains a classical cadherin, the Wnt-signaling protein β-catenin and the actin-binding protein α-catenin. We show that the non-metazoan Dictyostelium discoideum forms a polarized epithelium that is essential for multicellular development. Although D. discoideum lacks a cadherin homolog, we identify an α-catenin ortholog that binds a β-catenin-related protein. Both proteins are essential for formation of the epithelium, polarized protein secretion, and proper multicellular morphogenesis. Thus, the organizational principles of metazoan multicellularity may be more ancient than previously recognized, and the role of the catenins in cell polarity predates the evolution of Wnt signaling and classical cadherins.