Motor control assessment for rhizotomy in cerebral palsy

OBJECTIVE

To apply motor control assessment for selection of appropriate spastic cerebral palsy children to receive selective posterior rhizotomy (SPR).

DESIGN

Forty children with spastic cerebral palsy (3-16 yr) were divided into three groups: "independent ambulator," "dependent ambulator," and "nonambulator." Another 18 healthy children were selected as the control group. Both motor control (tested by using polyelectromyography (PEMG)) and clinical ambulatory capability were assessed within 1 mo before SPR and 12 mo after. PEMG patterns were classified into seven patterns according to electromyographic activities during hip/knee flexion and extension. Gait patterns, which were analyzed by computer DynoGraphy, were classified into four patterns for children with ambulatory capability.

RESULTS

PEMG and gait patterns were correlated with ambulatory ability. PEMG patterns 2-3 could predict independent ambulatory ability, whereas patterns 6-7 will interfere with ambulatory ability. PEMG patterns showed significant improvement after SPR in the ambulatory groups (P < 0.05), whereas they did not improve in the nonambulator group. Children with cerebral palsy with co-contraction of proximal/distal muscles had better results after SPR, whereas those with diffuse co-contraction or reduced electromyography activities had poor results.

CONCLUSIONS

PEMG patterns may allow the physician to select the appropriate children with spastic cerebral palsy to receive SPR with good results.

[Ultrastructural study on the peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle of patients with spastic cerebral palsy]

OBJECTIVE

To explore pathological features of the peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle of patients with spastic cerebral palsy.

METHODS

The peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle of 25 patients with spastic cerebral palsy were observed by gross examination during operation, and under microscope and electron microscope.

RESULTS

Gross examination showed that peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle was normal during operation. Microscope showed that some skeletal muscle fibers degenerated, and the connective tissue proliferated. electronmicroscopically the damage of demyelination was extensive on the peripheral nerve; the pathological changes of Schwann's cell were sooner and more severe than axons; the pathological changes of myelinated nerve fiber were more obvious than the nonmyelinated nerve fiber; the lymphocyte were found around the microvasculature within the perineurium; the mitochondrion of skeletal muscle fiber increased in number, the sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubule decreased and developed badly, the degenerative muscle fiber showed cell edema or the pathological changes of myofibril. All the peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle fiber affected had no repair and regeneration.

CONCLUSIONS

The demyelination of the peripheral nerve of patients with spastic cerebral palsy is primary, and the skeletal muscle of patients with spastic cerebral palsy is secondary pathological change. The activity of nerve and muscle regeneration is bad.

Nerve rootlets to be sectioned for spasticity resolution in selective dorsal rhizotomy

BACKGROUND

The goal of this study is to confirm the efficacy of the protocol for selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR). In this protocol, rootlets to be sectioned are selected by palpable responses elicited by intraoperative electrical stimulation, without detailed electromyographic classifications.

METHODS

Thirty-six children with spasticity due to cerebral palsy underwent SDR according to our protocol. Priority was given to sectioning rootlets that showed palpable clonic or bilateral responses, which were considered abnormal, over sectioning rootlets that merely had hyperactive responses to intraoperative stimulation. The results of intraoperative monitoring and sectioning amount were analyzed by physical evaluation.

RESULTS

Significant improvements were obtained in passive range of motion and muscle tone of the lower extremities. The total percentages of rootlets with abnormal and hyperactive responses at L3 and S1 were bilaterally correlated with preoperative spasticity of the hip adductors and the plantar flexors, respectively. When rootlets with hyperactive responses were excluded from the correlation analysis, no bilateral correlation was observed. From the correlation analyses between the improvement in the physical evaluation and the amount of nerve sectioned, it was concluded that a greater improvement in muscle tone in all examined muscles, except the hamstrings, could be obtained if larger amounts of nerve roots were sectioned.

CONCLUSION

The number of rootlets with palpable abnormal and hyperactive responses elicited by intraoperative stimulation reflects the preoperative spasticity of multiple muscles. This implies that only selecting rootlets with palpable responses can be reliable. Because more sectioning leads to better spasticity resolution, our protocol should be reviewed to increase the percentage of rootlets sectioned with hyperactive responses, especially for innervated levels of severely affected muscles.

[Nerve threshold value detector]

This paper describes the design, the composition and the method of clinical application of the nerve threshold value detector, which offers a new way of surgical diagnosis and treatment for paralytics.

Changes in gait at 1 year post-selective dorsal rhizotomy: results of a prospective randomized study

We performed a prospective randomized trial to compare the effects of selective dorsal rhizotomy with intensive physical therapy to intensive physical therapy alone in a group of children with mild spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. Instrumented gait analysis was carried out upon enrollment into the study and after 1 year. Changes in ambulatory status, time/distance parameters, and gait kinematics were observed for both groups. Considerable variability was present in both groups. Changes in ankle dorsiflexion, foot progression angle, and hip and knee extension in stance were significantly better in the selective dorsal rhizotomy group compared to the physical therapy group at 1 year (p < 0.05). These differences were not associated with significant improvements in functional gait as determined by changes in time/distance parameters or ambulatory status.

Assessment of hip rotation after gait improvement surgery in cerebral palsy

Sixteen children with diplegic type of cerebral palsy and spastic internal rotation gait were evaluated using gait analysis before and an average of 3 years after multiple soft tissue surgery. Significant correction of the internal rotation gait was observed after multi-level soft tissue surgery which included medial hamstring lengthening in all cases. Our results suggest that for children with spastic internal rotation gait, multi-level soft tissue surgery effectively corrects the dynamic internal rotation gait in the absence of fixed bony rotational deformities.

Impact of postoperative gait analysis on orthopaedic care

The impact of postoperative gait analysis on the ongoing orthopaedic care of 38 consecutive patients with a static encephalopathy was evaluated. Of the 38 postoperative gait analyses, 32 (84%) resulted in recommendations of a change in patient care. Surgery was recommended in 16 of 38 (42%) cases, bracing in 20 (53%) cases, and specific physical therapy regimens in eight (21%) cases. Eleven of the 38 (29%) patients had changes recommended in at least two of the three areas (surgery, bracing, and therapy). The results of this study suggest that postoperative gait analysis serves not only as a measure of treatment outcome, but also as a useful tool in planning ongoing care for these patients.

Changes in synergistic movement patterns after selective dorsal rhizotomy

The purpose of this investigation was to quantitatively compare synergistic movement patterns between seven children (four male, three female; aged 3 to 17 years; mean 6.7, SD 5.3) without cerebral palsy (CP) (controls) and 27 children (15 male, 12 female; aged 2 to 16 years; mean 5.7, SD 3.7) with spastic diplegic CP before and after selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR). The study design was also descriptive, comparing results of before and after SDR to control children. A two dimensional video system and retroreflective markers were used to obtain sagittal plane angles for the hip, knee, and ankle during maximum active knee flexion and extension. Correlations were calculated between the knee and hip and between the knee and ankle joint pairs. Control children demonstrated non-synergistic movement patterns (-0.75 and -0.61). These results were significantly different from children with CP (0.40 and 0.43, p<0.05). Eight months after SDR, synergistic patterns did not significantly change from preoperative results (0.23 and 0.36, p>0.05) and remained significantly different from control children (p<0.05). We conclude that it may not be possible to significantly alter synergistic patterns after SDR.

The Baumann procedure for fixed contracture of the gastrosoleus in cerebral palsy. Evaluation of function of the ankle after multilevel surgery

We treated 22 children (28 limbs) with diplegic cerebral palsy who were able to walk by the Baumann procedure for correction of fixed contracture of the gastrosoleus as part of multilevel single-stage surgery to improve gait. The function of the ankle was assessed by clinical examination and gait analysis before and at two years (2.1 to 4.0) after operation. At follow-up the ankle showed an increase in dorsiflexion at initial contact, in single stance and in the swing phase. There was an increase in dorsiflexion at initial push-off without a decrease in the range of movement of the ankle, and a significant improvement in the maximum flexor moment in the ankle in the second half of single stance. There was also a change from abnormal generation of energy in mid-stance to the normal pattern of energy absorption. Positive work during push-off was significantly increased. Lengthening of the gastrocnemius fascia by the Baumann procedure improved the function of the ankle significantly, and did not result in weakening of the triceps surae. We discuss the anatomical and mechanical merits of the procedure.

Changes in hand function following wrist arthrodesis in cerebal palsy

Eleven wrists in ten patients with cerebral palsy underwent wrist arthrodesis. All patients were reviewed between 6 and 121 months after surgery. Operative technique involved AO plate fixation in nine wrists. When the distal radial physis was still open (two wrists), stabilization was achieved using K-wires. A proximal row carpectomy was performed in eight patients. Soft tissue releases were necessary in three wrists. The procedure achieved its aim of improving hygiene and cosmesis. Functional improvement in the hand was noted in eight wrists. Function was consistently improved in athetoid patients.

Comparison of the Gross Motor Function Measure and Paediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory in assessing motor function in children undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy

This study was designed to compare assessment with the functional outcome measures Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) and Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI) over time, in children with cerebral palsy (CP) undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy combined with individualised physiotherapeutic interventions. Using the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), 18 children with spastic diplegia were divided into two groups according to age-related severity of motor function impairment. Data were collected preoperatively, and at 6 and 12 months postoperatively. Both instruments were sensitive to changes in function over time in the series as a whole and in the group with milder impairment, although the PEDI detected significant changes earlier. In the group with more severe impairment, changes in function were detected only with the PEDI, not with the GMFM. Thus, the instruments are to be considered complementary tests, because they measure different aspects of function.

Nonselective partial dorsal rhizotomy: a clinical experience with 1-year follow-Up

The ability to perform a 'selective' dorsal rhizotomy has been challenged. EMG responses are inconsistent and often do not represent reflex responses. We perform nonselective partial dorsal rhizotomy (NSPDR) when reflex response is not evident. Ten children undergoing primarily NSPDR were evaluated preoperatively and postoperatively with the Modified Ashworth Scale, gait lab analyses gross motor function measure and the NSPDR was performed by nonselectively sectioning 50-75% of the dorsal roots not demonstrating a reflex response. Standard selective rhizotomy was performed in the remainder. Only 17 of 106 (16%) dorsal roots demonstrated reflex responses. The results reported in this study demonstrate a benefit to patients undergoing primarily NSPDR which is similar to that reported for patients in whom a selective procedure was intended.

Botulinum toxin injection as an adjunct when planning hand surgery in children with spastic hemiplegia

The usefulness of botulinum toxin A treatment when planning hand surgery in eight children with spastic hemiplegia was evaluated. The hand function of the children was assessed before and after treatment using a test battery consisting of quantitative and qualitative functional assessment. The results of preoperative botulinum treatment supported surgical intervention in four children and serial botulinum treatment in three children. In one child, the preoperative botulinum treatment provided no additional information. We conclude that preoperative botulinum A treatment in most children with spastic hemiplegia, for whom hand surgery is being considered, identifies the patients who would not benefit from the planned surgery or for whom the functional benefit would probably not outweigh the burden of surgical procedure and postoperative rehabilitation.

Changes in ankle spasticity and strength following selective dorsal rhizotomy and physical therapy for spastic cerebral palsy

OBJECT

In this investigation the authors quantified changes in ankle plantarflexor spasticity and strength following selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) and intensive physical therapy in patients with cerebral palsy (CP).

METHODS

Twenty-five patients with cerebral palsy (CP group) and 12 able-bodied volunteers (AB controls) were tested with a dynamometer. For the spasticity measure, the dynamometer was used to measure the resistive torque of the plantarflexors during passive ankle dorsiflexion at five different speeds. Data were processed to yield a single value that simultaneously encompassed the three key elements associated with spasticity: velocity, resistance, and stretch. For the strength test, the dynamometer rotated the ankle from full dorsiflexion to full plantarflexion while a maximum concentric contraction of the plantarflexors was performed. Torque angle data were processed to include the work done by the patient or volunteer on the machine. Plantarflexor spasticity values for the CP group were significantly greater than similar values for the AB control group prior to surgery but not significantly different after surgery. Plantarflexor strength values of the CP group were significantly less than those of the AB control group pre- and postsurgery. Postsurgery strength values did not change relative to presurgery values.

CONCLUSIONS

The spasticity results of the present investigation agreed with those of previous studies indicating a reduction in spasticity for the CP group. The strength results did not agree with the findings of most previous related literature, which indicated that a decrease in strength should have occurred. The strength results agreed with a previous investigation in which knee flexor strength was objectively examined, indicating that strength did not decrease as a consequence of an SDR. The methods of this investigation could be used to improve SDR patient selection.

The effect of valproic acid on blood loss in patients with cerebral palsy

Valproic acid (VPA) is used in the treatment of seizure disorders often present in patients with cerebral palsy. The charts of 114 patients with cerebral palsy were reviewed to evaluate the effect of VPA on blood loss during spine surgery. Forty-one patients had seizure disorders. Of these, 18 were taking VPA as monotherapy (group III) and the remaining 23 patients were taking other antiseizure medications, including two taking VPA (group II). There was a significant increase in the number of patients with abnormal bleeding times and a significant difference (p < 0.001) in blood loss (ml/kg) in patients taking VPA as monotherapy (38.6 ml/kg vs. 30.0 ml/kg). There was also increased blood-product administration postoperatively in the VPA monotherapy patients. Physicians should be aware of this potential association between VPA use and increased blood loss. The routine laboratory tests of complete blood count, prothrombin time, and partial thromboplastin time will not adequately screen for the platelet-mediated effects of VPA.

[The effect of selective dorsal rhizotomy on motor function in patients with infantile cerebral palsy]

The authors analyze the outcomes of surgical treatment in 15 CP patients with lower paraparesis who had been treated with selective dorsal rhizotomy at the L2-S2 level. All the patients were examined by neurological study, EMG, EEG, visual evoked potential (VEP) recording and motor reaction time estimation. Based on the findings, it is suggested that SPR lumbosacral spinal level may affect cerebral function. Some motor functional changes are associated with this impact. Possible mechanisms of these changes are discussed.

Limited (L4-S1, L5-S1) selective dorsal rhizotomy for reducing spasticity in cerebral palsy

Selective posterior rhizotomy is effective for relieving spasticity associated with cerebral palsy. In current techniques dorsal roots from L1/L2 to S1/S2 are selectively divided. With transoperative electromyography (EMG) significant sensory loss has been prevented, but postoperative hypotonia following excessive reduction of the fusimotor drive is still of concern for surgeons and therapists. To decrease the volume of deafferentiated rootlets we proposed a limited selective posterior rhizotomy (LPSR) that limits the extent of the surgery to three (L4-S1) or two (L5-S1) dorsal roots. We present the results of two group of spastic children; group 1 (n = 59, 32 quadriplegic and 27 diplegic) who had a L4-S1 LPSR, and group 2 (n = 12) in whom L5 and S1 were selectively rhizotomized. Posture, passive movilization, range of joint movement, and muscle tone in hip flexors, adductors, leg flexors and plantar flexors were graded according to the method proposed by Sindou and Jeanmonod. In all groups these was a significant reduction of the mentioned parameters (Friedman test p < 0.001) at 6, 12 and 18 months after surgery. The preoperative and postoperative ability to ambulate was classified into five grades. In all groups there was a significant (chi 2 between p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) improvement in the quality of their gait. A third of the patients achieved some form of independent ambulation. Our results suggest that extensive selective deafferentation of the lower limbs is not an absolute requisite for reducing muscle tone or achieving functional improvement in spastic children.

[Complex reconstruction of subluxated and dislocated hip joints in spastically handicapped children]

QUESTION

Will surgical reconstruction of subluxated or dislocated hip joints in children with cerebral palsy lead to stable reduction and painless hips? Is there any positive influence on psychomotoric development of the children and on trunk and pelvic symmetry as well as on daily hygienic care after successful reduction of unstable hip joints in spastic children?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty hip joints in 26 children with cerebral palsy were operated applying the same complex reconstruction method of the hip joint. Fifteen of these children with 17 operated hip joints fulfilled a minimum follow up period of 3 years were evaluated continuously in this study. The parents and physiotherapists answered a questionnaire, all patients were examined clinically and pelvic anteroposterior and lateral radiographs were obtained.

RESULTS

The mean age at surgery was 6 years, the minimum follow up 3 years (3-10 years). All hip joints were preoperatively decentered, 6 subluxated, 11 complete dislocated. At follow-up 15 of 17 were persistently reduced. The postoperative results were graded by the parents as excellent and good in eleven, satisfying in four and in two patients as poor. The radiographic evaluation showed an significant improvement of the CE-, AC- and neck shaft angle.

CONCLUSION

Reconstruction of decentered hips will lead to stable reduction and painless hips at least in mid term follow-up. Symmetrically centered hip joints are mandatory for a pelvic and spinal symmetry and may contribute for an optimal of psychomotoric development.

Long-term outcome after selective posterior rhizotomy in children with spastic cerebral palsy

A retrospective analysis of data collected prospectively was performed to determine the long-term outcome of lumbosacral selective posterior rhizotomy (SPR) in children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP). The study population comprised children with spastic CP, who had SPR more than 4 years prior to the time of the study and had quantitative standardized assessments of lower limb spasticity (Ashworth scale), range of motion measured goniometrically, muscle strength (MRC scale) and ambulatory function, both preoperatively and at 1 year after SPR. Children meeting these criteria were reassessed at 5 years after SPR using the same measures. Hip adductor spasticity, hip abduction range of motion and quadriceps strength were chosen as the primary outcome measures for statistical analysis. Of 80 patients who met the entry criteria for the study, 33 completed the 5-year assessments. Significant improvements in spasticity, range of motion and muscle strength were noted both at 1 year and at 5 years after SPR. The preoperative, 1-year and 5-year values were as follows: hip adductor spasticity (Ashworth scale) = 4.1, 2.1, 2.2; hip abduction range of motion (degrees) = 20.4, 39.9, 31.7, and quadriceps strength (MRC scale) = 3.6, 4.0, 4.1. Ambulatory function seemed to be better at 1 and 5 years compared to baseline, but no statistical analysis was done for this secondary outcome measure. It was concluded that improvements in lower limb motor outcome are present at 1 year after SPR, and that these improvements are generally maintained at 5 years.

Asymmetric hip deformity and subluxation in cerebral palsy: an analysis of surgical treatment

Thirty-seven cerebral palsy patients were followed with measurements of the migration index (MI), infrapelvic obliquity, and suprapelvic obliquity over a mean period of 73 months to evaluate the development of the windblown deformity. The infrapelvic asymmetry was apparent before the suprapelvic obliquity; however, 65% eventually had both. The final pattern of infrapelvic obliquity and the most subluxed hip could not be predicted from initial radiographs or from the pattern of scoliosis. Hip subluxation strongly correlated with the degree of femoral adduction and weakly with the magnitude of suprapelvic obliquity. The suprapelvic obliquity and scoliosis increased over time and influenced the final windblown appearance. Soft-tissue surgeries did not have a significant effect on the final MI. Severe abduction deformities generally followed ipsilateral adductor releases. Finally, despite improvement in the MI of the initially more subluxed hip, 33% of patients still had one hip with a MI >50%.

The effect of muscle-tone-reducing procedures in athetotic head movements: partial nerve block by lidocaine and surgical release of the neck muscles

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of muscle-tone-reducing procedures (MTRPs), i.e. partial nerve block by lidocaine (PNB) and surgical release of muscle attachment to bone (SRMAB), on incessant involuntary head movements in athetotic patients.

METHODS

Pre/post-MTRP changes in neck-muscle activities, glabella movement and maximum isometric forces of the head were measured in six athetotic patients with severe spondylotic myelopathy resulting from incessant involuntary head movements.

RESULTS

Pre/post-MTRP changes in neck-muscle activities resembled those after gamma-block. In four patients, PNB reduced the maximum isometric force by no more than 40% of pre-PNB force, while decreasing the amount of involuntary head movements to 37-65% of the pre-PNB value in the frontal plane. MRSAB reduced the force by less than 40% of pre-SRMAB force in 4 MRSAB tested patients, while decreasing the amount of involuntary head movements to 12-45% of the pre-SRMAB value in all 6 patients.

CONCLUSION

MTRPs reduced involuntary head movements significantly while preserving voluntary muscle forces relatively well. PNB and SRMAB procedures have in common the effect of reducing gain in the myotatic reflex pathway by decreasing the excitatory inflows to alpha-motoneurons via muscle spindle Ia-afferents, which resulted from blocking mainly gamma-efferent conduction by PNB, and reducing background tension in muscle spindles by SRMAB.

[Functional posterior rhizotomy as a surgical treatment for spastic cerebral palsy in childhood]

The author reported a case of spastic cerebral palsy in a 4-year-old boy who underwent functional posterior rhizotomy and were followed up for more than one and a half years after surgery to evaluate the degree of spasticity. The patient's preoperative ADL was highly restricted due to severe spasticity. In the surgery, the bilateral rootlets from L2 to S1 were selectively cut if an abnormal reflex activity was demonstrated by neurophysiological methods. Spasticity markedly decreased postoperatively and alleviated the family's burden for daily care. During the period of follow up, residual spasticity has subsided and the effect in controlling spasticity was long-standing. Functional posterior rhizotomy has been recognized as an established neurosurgical treatment for spastic cerebral palsy in childhood in the North America. However, the procedure is uncommon in Japan. The author outlined here the procedure and its history. Functional posterior rhizotomy is a strong armament for treating spasticity in cerebral palsy. The procedure would greatly benefit patients with spastic cerebral palsy in combination with current treatments.