Morpholino antisense oligonucleotides targeting intronic repressor Element1 improve phenotype in SMA mouse models

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the loss of Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). In all SMA patients, a nearly identical copy gene called SMN2 is present, which produces low levels of functional protein owing to an alternative splicing event. To prevent exon-skipping, we have targeted an intronic repressor, Element1 (E1), located upstream of SMN2 exon 7 using Morpholino-based antisense oligonucleotides (E1(MO)-ASOs). A single intracerebroventricular injection in the relatively severe mouse model of SMA (SMNΔ7 mouse model) elicited a robust induction of SMN protein, and mean life span was extended from an average survival of 13 to 54 days following a single dose, consistent with large weight gains and a correction of the neuronal pathology. Additionally, E1(MO)-ASO treatment in an intermediate SMA mouse (SMN(RT) mouse model) significantly extended life span by ∼700% and weight gain was comparable with the unaffected animals. While a number of experimental therapeutics have targeted the ISS-N1 element of SMN2 pre-mRNA, the development of E1 ASOs provides a new molecular target for SMA therapeutics that dramatically extends survival in two important pre-clinical models of disease.

Defining the therapeutic window in a severe animal model of spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the loss of a single gene, Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). Administration of a self-complementary Adeno-Associated Virus vector expressing full-length SMN cDNA (scAAV-SMN) has proven an effective means to rescue the SMA phenotype in SMA mice, either by intravenous (IV) or intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration at very early time points. We have recently shown that ICV delivery of scAAV9-SMN is more effective than a similar dose of vector administered via an IV injection, thereby providing an important mechanism to examine a timeline for rescuing the disease and determining the therapeutic window in a severe model of SMA. In this report, we utilized a relatively severe mouse model of SMA, SMNΔ7. Animals were injected with scAAV9-SMN vector via ICV injection on a single day, from P2 through P8. At each delivery point from P2 through P8, scAAV9-SMN decreased disease severity. A near complete rescue was obtained following P2 injection while a P8 injection produced a ∼ 40% extension in survival. Analysis of the underlying neuromuscular junction (NMJ) pathology revealed that late-stage delivery of the vector failed to provide protection from NMJ defects despite robust SMN expression in the central nervous system. While our study demonstrates that a maximal benefit is obtained when treatment is delivered during pre-symptomatic stages, significant therapeutic benefit can still be achieved after the onset of disease symptoms.

Spinal muscular atrophy: a motor neuron disorder or a multi-organ disease?

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive disorder that is the leading genetic cause of infantile death. SMA is characterized by loss of motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, leading to weakness and muscle atrophy. SMA occurs as a result of homozygous deletion or mutations in Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). Loss of SMN1 leads to a dramatic reduction in SMN protein, which is essential for motor neuron survival. SMA disease severity ranges from extremely severe to a relatively mild adult onset form of proximal muscle atrophy. Severe SMA patients typically die mostly within months or a few years as a consequence of respiratory insufficiency and bulbar paralysis. SMA is widely known as a motor neuron disease; however, there are numerous clinical reports indicating the involvement of additional peripheral organs contributing to the complete picture of the disease in severe cases. In this review, we have compiled clinical and experimental reports that demonstrate the association between the loss of SMN and peripheral organ deficiency and malfunction. Whether defective peripheral organs are a consequence of neuronal damage/muscle atrophy or a direct result of SMN loss will be discussed.

Enhancement of SMN protein levels in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy using novel drug-like compounds

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive muscle weakness, which primarily targets proximal muscles. About 95% of SMA cases are caused by the loss of both copies of the SMN1 gene. SMN2 is a nearly identical copy of SMN1, which expresses much less functional SMN protein. SMN2 is unable to fully compensate for the loss of SMN1 in motor neurons but does provide an excellent target for therapeutic intervention. Increased expression of functional full-length SMN protein from the endogenous SMN2 gene should lessen disease severity. We have developed and implemented a new high-throughput screening assay to identify small molecules that increase the expression of full-length SMN from a SMN2 reporter gene. Here, we characterize two novel compounds that increased SMN protein levels in both reporter cells and SMA fibroblasts and show that one increases lifespan, motor function, and SMN protein levels in a severe mouse model of SMA.

Restoration of SMN to Emx-1 expressing cortical neurons is not sufficient to provide benefit to a severe mouse model of Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder, is a leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA is caused by the homozygous loss of Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). However, low, but essential, levels of SMN protein are produced by a nearly identical copy gene called SMN2. Detailed analysis of neuromuscular junctions in SMA mice has revealed a selective vulnerability in a subset of muscle targets, suggesting that while SMN is reduced uniformly, the functional deficits manifest sporadically. Additionally, in severe SMA models, it is becoming increasing apparent that SMA is not restricted solely to motor neurons. Rather, additional tissues including the heart, vasculature, and the pancreas contribute to the complete SMA-associated pathology. Recently, transgenic models have been utilized to examine the tissue-specific requirements of SMN, including selective depletion and restoration of SMN in motor neurons. To determine whether the cortical neuronal populations expressing the Emx-1 promoter are involved in SMA pathology, we generated a novel SMA mouse model in which SMN expression was specifically induced in Emx-1 expressing cortical neurons utilizing an Emx-1-Cre transgene. While SMN expression was robust in the central nervous system as expected, SMA mice did not live longer. Weight and time-to-right motor function were not significantly improved.

Development and characterization of an SMN2-based intermediate mouse model of Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is due to the loss of the survival motor neuron gene 1 (SMN1), resulting in motor neuron (MN) degeneration, muscle atrophy and loss of motor function. While SMN2 encodes a protein identical to SMN1, a single nucleotide difference in exon 7 causes most of the SMN2-derived transcripts to be alternatively spliced resulting in a truncated and unstable protein (SMNΔ7). SMA patients retain at least one SMN2 copy, making it an important target for therapeutics. Many of the existing SMA models are very severe, with animals typically living less than 2 weeks. Here, we present a novel intermediate mouse model of SMA based upon the human genomic SMN2 gene. Genetically, this model is similar to the well-characterized SMNΔ7 model; however, we have manipulated the SMNΔ7 transgene to encode a modestly more functional protein referred to as SMN read-through (SMN(RT)). By introducing the SMN(RT) transgene onto the background of a severe mouse model of SMA (SMN2(+/+);Smn(-/-)), disease severity was significantly decreased based upon a battery of phenotypic parameters, including MN pathology and a significant extension in survival. Importantly, there is not a full phenotypic correction, allowing for the examination of a broad range of therapeutics, including SMN2-dependent and SMN-independent pathways. This novel animal model serves as an important biological and therapeutic model for less severe forms of SMA and provides an in vivo validation of the SMN(RT) protein.

SMN-inducing compounds for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a leading genetic cause of infant mortality. A neurodegenerative disease, it is caused by loss of SMN1, although low, but essential, levels of SMN protein are produced by the nearly identical gene SMN2. While no effective treatment or therapy currently exists, a new wave of therapeutics has rapidly progressed from cell-based and preclinical animal models to the point where clinical trials have initiated for SMA-specific compounds. There are several reasons why SMA has moved relatively rapidly towards novel therapeutics, including: SMA is monogenic; the molecular understanding of SMN gene regulation has been building for nearly 20 years; and all SMA patients retain one or more copies of SMN2 that produces low levels of full-length, fully functional SMN protein. This review primarily focuses upon the biology behind the disease and examines SMN1- and SMN2-targeted therapeutics.

Replacement of huntingtin exon 1 by trans-splicing

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by polyglutamine expansion in the amino-terminus of huntingtin (HTT). HD offers unique opportunities for promising RNA-based therapeutic approaches aimed at reducing mutant HTT expression, since the HD mutation is considered to be a "gain-of-function" mutation. Allele-specific strategies that preserve expression from the wild-type allele and reduce the levels of mutant protein would be of particular interest. Here, we have conducted proof-of-concept studies to demonstrate that spliceosome-mediated trans-splicing is a viable molecular strategy to specifically repair the HTT allele. We employed a dual plasmid transfection system consisting of a pre-mRNA trans-splicing module (PTM) containing HTT exon 1 and a HTT minigene to demonstrate that HTT exon 1 can be replaced in trans. We detected the presence of the trans-spliced RNA in which PTM exon 1 was correctly joined to minigene exons 2 and 3. Furthermore, exon 1 from the PTM was trans-spliced to the endogenous HTT pre-mRNA in cultured cells as well as disease-relevant models, including HD patient fibroblasts and primary neurons from a previously described HD mouse model. These results suggest that the repeat expansion of HTT can be repaired successfully not only in the context of synthetic minigenes but also within the context of HD neurons. Therefore, pre-mRNA trans-splicing may be a promising approach for the treatment of HD and other dominant genetic disorders.

Analysis of a read-through promoting compound in a severe mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is the leading genetic cause of infantile death and caused by the loss of functional Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1). The remaining copy gene, SMN2, is unable to rescue from disease because the primary gene product lacks the final coding exon, exon 7, due to an alternative splicing event. While SMNΔ7 is a rapidly degraded protein, exon 7 is not specifically required in a sequence-specific manner to confer increased functionality to this truncated protein. Based upon this molecular observation, aminoglycosides have been examined to artificially elongate the C-terminus of SMNΔ7 by "read-through" of the stop codon. An SMNΔ7 read-through event benefits intermediate mouse models of SMA. Here we demonstrate that delivery of a read-through inducing compound directly to the CNS can partially lessen the severity of a severe model of SMA (Smn(-/-); SMN2(+/+)), albeit not to the extent seen in the less severe model. This further demonstrates the utility of read-through inducing compounds in SMA.

Decreasing disease severity in symptomatic, Smn(-/-);SMN2(+/+), spinal muscular atrophy mice following scAAV9-SMN delivery

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder, is the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA is caused by the homozygous loss of Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). In humans, a nearly identical copy gene is present, SMN2. SMN2 is retained in all SMA patients and encodes the same protein as SMN1. However, SMN1 and SMN2 differ by a silent C-to-T transition at the 5' end of exon 7, causing alternative splicing of SMN2 transcripts and low levels of full-length SMN. SMA is monogenic and therefore well suited for gene-replacement strategies. Recently, self-complementary adeno-associated virus (scAAV) vectors have been used to deliver the SMN cDNA to an animal model of disease, the SMNΔ7 mouse. In this study, we examine a severe model of SMA, Smn(-/-);SMN2(+/+), to determine whether gene replacement is viable in a model in which disease development begins in utero. Using two delivery paradigms, intracerebroventricular injections and intravenous injections, we delivered scAAV9-SMN and demonstrated a two to four fold increase in survival, in addition to improving many of the phenotypic parameters of the model. This represents the longest extension in survival for this severe model for any therapeutic intervention and suggests that postsymptomatic treatment of SMA may lead to significant improvement of disease severity.

Bifunctional RNAs targeting the intronic splicing silencer N1 increase SMN levels and reduce disease severity in an animal model of spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by loss of survival motor neuron-1 (SMN1). A nearly identical copy gene, SMN2, is present in all SMA patients. Although the SMN2 coding sequence has the potential to produce full-length SMN, nearly 90% of SMN2-derived transcripts are alternatively spliced and encode a truncated protein. SMN2, however, is an excellent therapeutic target. Previously, we developed antisense-based oligonucleotides (bifunctional RNAs) that specifically recruit SR/SR-like splicing factors and target a negative regulator of SMN2 exon-7 inclusion within intron-6. As a means to optimize the antisense sequence of the bifunctional RNAs, we chose to target a potent intronic repressor downstream of SMN2 exon 7, called intronic splicing silencer N1 (ISS-N1). We developed RNAs that specifically target ISS-N1 and concurrently recruit the modular SR proteins SF2/ASF or hTra2β1. RNAs were directly injected in the brains of SMA mice. Bifunctional RNA injections were able to elicit robust induction of SMN protein in the brain and spinal column of neonatal SMA mice. Importantly, hTra2β1-ISS-N1 and SF2/ASF-ISS-N1 bifunctional RNAs significantly extended lifespan and increased weight in the SMNΔ7 mice. This technology has direct implications for SMA therapy and provides similar therapeutic strategies for other diseases caused by aberrant splicing.

Delivery of therapeutic agents through intracerebroventricular (ICV) and intravenous (IV) injection in mice

Despite the protective role that blood brain barrier plays in shielding the brain, it limits the access to the central nervous system (CNS) which most often results in failure of potential therapeutics designed for neurodegenerative disorders. Neurodegenerative diseases such as Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), in which the lower motor neurons are affected, can benefit greatly from introducing the therapeutic agents into the CNS. The purpose of this video is to demonstrate two different injection paradigms to deliver therapeutic materials into neonatal mice soon after birth. One of these methods is injecting directly into cerebral lateral ventricles (Intracerebroventricular) which results in delivery of materials into the CNS through the cerebrospinal fluid. The second method is a temporal vein injection (intravenous) that can introduce different therapeutics into the circulatory system, leading to systemic delivery including the CNS. Widespread transduction of the CNS is achievable if an appropriate viral vector and viral serotype is utilized. Visualization and utilization of the temporal vein for injection is feasible up to postnatal day 6. However, if the delivered material is intended to reach the CNS, these injections should take place while the blood brain barrier is more permeable due to its immature status, preferably prior to postnatal day 2. The fully developed blood brain barrier greatly limits the effectiveness of intravenous delivery. Both delivery systems are simple and effective once the surgical aptitude is achieved. They do not require any extensive surgical devices and can be performed by a single person. However, these techniques are not without challenges. The small size of postnatal day 2 pups and the subsequent small target areas can make the injections difficult to perform and initially challenging to replicate.

Optimization of SMN trans-splicing through the analysis of SMN introns

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a neurodegenerative disease, is the leading genetic cause of infantile death and is caused by the loss of survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1). Humans carry a duplicated copy gene, SMN2, which produces very low levels of functional protein due to an alternative splicing event. This splicing difference is the reason that SMN2 cannot prevent SMA development when SMN1 is deleted. SMN2 generates a transcript lacking exon 7 and consequently gives rise to an unstable truncated SMN protein that cannot protect from SMA. To increase full-length SMN protein, we utilize a strategy referred to as trans-splicing. This strategy relies upon pre-mRNA splicing occurring between two separate molecules: (1) the endogenous target RNA and (2) the therapeutic RNA that provides the correct RNA sequence via a trans-splicing event. The initial trans-splicing RNA targeted intron 6 and replaced exon 7 with the SMN1 exon 7 in SMN2 pre-mRNA. To determine the most efficient intron for SMN trans-splicing event, a panel of trans-splicing RNA molecules was constructed. Each trans-splicing RNA molecule targets a specific intron within the SMN2 pre-mRNA and based on the target intron, replaces the downstream exons including exon 7. These constructs were examined by RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, and Western blotting. We have identified intron 3 as the most efficient intron to support trans-splicing in cellular assays. The intron 3 trans-splicing construct targets intron 3 and replaces exons 4-7 and was distinguished based on its ability to produce the highest level of the trans-spliced RNA and full-length SMN protein in SMA patient fibroblasts. The efficiency of the intron 3 construct was further improved by addition of an antisense that blocks the 3' splice site at the intron 4/exon 5 junction. Most importantly, intracerebroventricular injection of the Int3 construct into SMNΔ7 mice elevated the SMN protein levels in the central nervous system. This research demonstrates an alternative platform to correct genetic defects, including SMN expression and examines the molecular basis for trans-splicing.

SMN in spinal muscular atrophy and snRNP biogenesis

Ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes function in nearly every facet of cellular activity. The spliceosome is an essential RNP that accurately identifies introns and catalytically removes the intervening sequences, providing exquisite control of spatial, temporal, and developmental gene expressions. U-snRNPs are the building blocks for the spliceosome. A significant amount of insight into the molecular assembly of these essential particles has recently come from a seemingly unexpected area of research: neurodegeneration. Survival motor neuron (SMN) performs an essential role in the maturation of snRNPs, while the homozygous loss of SMN1 results in the development of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a devastating neurodegenerative disease. In this review, the function of SMN is examined within the context of snRNP biogenesis and evidence is examined which suggests that the SMN functional defects in snRNP biogenesis may account for the motor neuron pathology observed in SMA.

The COPI vesicle complex binds and moves with survival motor neuron within axons

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), an inherited disease of motor neuron dysfunction, results from insufficient levels of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. Movement of the SMN protein as granules within cultured axons suggests that the pathogenesis of SMA may involve defects in neuronal transport, yet the nature of axon transport vesicles remains enigmatic. Here we show that SMN directly binds to the α-subunit of the coat protein I (COPI) vesicle coat protein. The α-COP protein co-immunoprecipitates with SMN, small nuclear ribonucleoprotein-associated assembly factors and β-actin mRNA. Although typically Golgi associated, in neuronal cells α-COP localizes to lamellipodia and growth cones and moves within the axon, with a subset of these granules traveling together with SMN. Depletion of α-COP resulted in mislocalization of SMN and actin at the leading edge at the lamellipodia. We propose that neurons utilize the Golgi-associated COPI vesicle to deliver cargoes necessary for motor neuron integrity and function.

Combination of SMN trans-splicing and a neurotrophic factor increases the life span and body mass in a severe model of spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a neurodegenerative disease, is the second most common genetic disorder and the leading genetic cause of infantile death. SMA arises from the loss of Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1), leading to degeneration of lower motor neurons and, consequently, the atrophy of voluntary muscles. A duplicated copy gene called SMN2 exists in humans. SMN2 is unable to fully compensate for the loss of SMN1 because it produces very low levels of functional SMN protein due to an alternative splicing event. A C/T transition in SMN2 exon 7 results in a transcript lacking exon 7 and, therefore, creates a truncated SMN protein that cannot fully compensate for the loss of SMN1. However, SMN2 is an ideal target for therapeutic strategies that redirect this critical splicing event. Previously, we developed the first trans-splicing strategy to increase the full-length mRNA and functional SMN protein from the SMN2 gene. To improve the trans-splicing efficacy, we then developed a single-vector system that expressed a trans-splicing RNA (tsRNA) and an antisense blocking the downstream splice site. This single vector greatly enhanced trans-splicing of SMN2 transcripts in vitro and in vivo. In this report, we have added a neurotrophic factor [insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1] to this single vector to determine whether neuroprotection and SMN induction provide greater protection in an SMA animal model. Intracerebroventricular injection of the trans-splicing/IGF vector significantly increased SMN protein in brain and spinal cord of SMAΔ7 mice and lessened the severity of disease in a more severe mouse model as evidenced by an extension of life span and increased body mass.

Spinal muscular atrophy: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder and a leading genetic cause of infantile mortality. SMA is caused by mutation or deletion of Survival Motor Neuron-1 (SMN1). The clinical features of the disease are caused by specific degeneration of alpha-motor neurons in the spinal cord, leading to muscle weakness, atrophy and, in the majority of cases, premature death. A highly homologous copy gene (SMN2) is retained in almost all SMA patients but fails to generate adequate levels of SMN protein due to its defective splicing pattern. The severity of the SMA phenotype is inversely correlated with SMN2 copy number and the level of full-length SMN protein produced by SMN2 ( approximately 10-15% compared with SMN1). The natural history of SMA has been altered over the past several decades, primarily through supportive care measures, but an effective treatment does not presently exist. However, the common genetic etiology and recent progress in pre-clinical models suggest that SMA is well-suited for the development of therapeutic regimens. We summarize recent advances in translational research that hold promise for the progression towards clinical trials.

Identification of a self-association domain in the Ewing's sarcoma protein: a novel function for arginine-glycine-glycine rich motifs?

The Ewing's sarcoma (EWS) protein is a ubiquitously expressed RNA chaperone. The EWS protein localizes predominantly to the nucleus. Previous reports have suggested that the EWS protein is capable of dimerizing. However, to date this has not been confirmed. Here, using a novel panel of recombinant proteins, we have performed an in vitro biomolecular interaction analysis of the EWS protein. We have demonstrated that all three arginine-glycine-glycine (RGG) motifs are capable of binding directly to the survival motor neuron protein, a Tudor domain containing EWS binding partner. We have also confirmed EWS is capable of self-associating, and we have mapped this binding domain to the RGG motifs. We have also found that self-association may be required for EWS nuclear import. This is the first direct evidence of RGG domains being involved in self-association and has implications on all RGG-containing proteins.

Subcutaneous administration of TC007 reduces disease severity in an animal model of SMA

Background

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is the leading genetic cause of infantile death. It is caused by the loss of functional Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1). There is a nearly identical copy gene, SMN2, but it is unable to rescue from disease due to an alternative splicing event that excises a necessary exon (exon 7) from the majority of SMN2-derived transcripts. While SMNΔ7 protein has severely reduced functionality, the exon 7 sequences may not be specifically required for all activities. Therefore, aminoglycoside antibiotics previously shown to suppress stop codon recognition and promote translation read-through have been examined to increase the length of the SMNΔ7 C-terminus.

Results

Here we demonstrate that subcutaneous-administration of a read-through inducing compound (TC007) to an intermediate SMA model (Smn-/-; SMN2+/+; SMNΔ7) had beneficial effects on muscle fiber size and gross motor function.

Conclusion

Delivery of the read-through inducing compound TC007 reduces the disease-associated phenotype in SMA mice, however, does not significantly extend survival.

Effect of diet on the survival and phenotype of a mouse model for spinal muscular atrophy

Proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a leading genetic cause of infant death. Patients with SMA lose alpha-motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord which leads to skeletal muscle weakness and atrophy. SMA is the result of reduction in Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) expression. Transgenic mouse models of SMA have been generated and are extremely useful in understanding the mechanisms of motor neuron degeneration in SMA and in developing new therapeutic candidates for SMA patients. Several research groups have reported varying average lifespans of SMNDelta7 SMA mice (SMN2(+/+);SMNDelta7(+/+);mSmn(-/-)), the most commonly used mouse model for preclinical therapeutic candidate testing. One environmental factor that varied between research groups was maternal diet. In this study, we compared the effects of two different commercially available rodent chows (PicoLab20 Mouse diet and Harlan-Teklad 22/5 diet) on the survival and motor phenotype of the SMNDelta7 mouse model of SMA. Specifically, the PicoLab20 diet significantly extends the average lifespan of the SMNDelta7 SMA mice by approximately 25% and improved the motor phenotype as compared to the Harlan diet. These findings indicate that maternal diet alone can have considerable impact on the SMA phenotype.

A negatively acting bifunctional RNA increases survival motor neuron both in vitro and in vivo

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder and is the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA is caused by the loss of survival motor neuron-1 (SMN1). In humans, a nearly identical copy gene is present called SMN2, but this gene cannot compensate for the loss of SMN1 because of a single silent nucleotide difference in SMN2 exon 7. This single-nucleotide difference attenuates an exonic splice enhancer, resulting in the production of an alternatively spliced isoform lacking exon 7, which is essential for protein function. SMN2, however, is a critical disease modifier and is an outstanding target for therapeutic intervention because all SMA patients retain SMN2 and SMN2 maintains the same coding sequence as SMN1. Therefore, compounds or molecules that increase SMN2 exon 7 inclusion hold great promise for SMA therapeutics. Bifunctional RNAs have been previously used to increase SMN protein levels and derive their name from the presence of two domains: an antisense RNA sequence specific to the target RNA and an untethered RNA segment that serves as a binding platform for splicing factors. This study was designed to develop negatively acting bifunctional RNAs that recruit hnRNPA1 to exon 8 and block the general splicing machinery from the exon 8. By blocking the downstream splice site, this could competitively favor the inclusion of SMN exon 7 and therefore increase full-length SMN production. Here we identify a bifunctional RNA that stimulated full-length SMN expression in a variety of cell-based assays including SMA patient fibroblasts. Importantly, this molecule was also able to induce SMN expression in a previously described mouse model of SMA and demonstrates a novel therapeutic approach for SMA as well as a variety of diseases caused by a defect in splicing.

A negatively acting bifunctional RNA increases survival motor neuron both in vitro and in vivo

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder and is the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA is caused by the loss of survival motor neuron-1 (SMN1). In humans, a nearly identical copy gene is present called SMN2, but this gene cannot compensate for the loss of SMN1 because of a single silent nucleotide difference in SMN2 exon 7. This single-nucleotide difference attenuates an exonic splice enhancer, resulting in the production of an alternatively spliced isoform lacking exon 7, which is essential for protein function. SMN2, however, is a critical disease modifier and is an outstanding target for therapeutic intervention because all SMA patients retain SMN2 and SMN2 maintains the same coding sequence as SMN1. Therefore, compounds or molecules that increase SMN2 exon 7 inclusion hold great promise for SMA therapeutics. Bifunctional RNAs have been previously used to increase SMN protein levels and derive their name from the presence of two domains: an antisense RNA sequence specific to the target RNA and an untethered RNA segment that serves as a binding platform for splicing factors. This study was designed to develop negatively acting bifunctional RNAs that recruit hnRNPA1 to exon 8 and block the general splicing machinery from the exon 8. By blocking the downstream splice site, this could competitively favor the inclusion of SMN exon 7 and therefore increase full-length SMN production. Here we identify a bifunctional RNA that stimulated full-length SMN expression in a variety of cell-based assays including SMA patient fibroblasts. Importantly, this molecule was also able to induce SMN expression in a previously described mouse model of SMA and demonstrates a novel therapeutic approach for SMA as well as a variety of diseases caused by a defect in splicing.

RNA-targeting approaches for neuromuscular diseases

Although most molecular therapy strategies for genetic diseases are based on gene replacement, interesting alternative approaches target RNA. These strategies rely on the modification of the mutated gene's expression in vivo by modulating pre-mRNA splicing, mRNA stability or mRNA translation. Here, we review recent progress using these RNA-based approaches in the field of muscle and muscle-related genetic diseases. Different molecular tools, including modified antisense oligonucleotides, pre-mRNA trans-splicing molecules, ribozymes or chemical compounds have been used successfully on patient cells or animal models of disease. These diverse strategies show tremendous therapeutic potential and several clinical trials have been initiated with Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients with promising results.

Identification of a tripartite import signal in the Ewing Sarcoma protein (EWS)

The Ewing Sarcoma (EWS) protein is a ubiquitously expressed RNA processing factor that localises predominantly to the nucleus. However, the mechanism through which EWS enters the nucleus remains unclear, with differing reports identifying three separate import signals within the EWS protein. Here we have utilized a panel of truncated EWS proteins to clarify the reported nuclear localisation signals. We describe three C-terminal domains that are important for efficient EWS nuclear localization: (1) the third RGG-motif; (2) the last 10 amino acids (known as the PY-import motif); and (3) the zinc-finger motif. Although these three domains are involved in nuclear import, they are not independently capable of driving the efficient import of a GFP-moiety. However, collectively they form a complex tripartite signal that efficiently drives GFP-import into the nucleus. This study helps clarify the EWS import signal, and the identification of the involvement of both the RGG- and zinc-finger motifs has wide reaching implications.