Individual difference and contextual variables influence spatial memory in younger and older adults

This study examined the influence of individual difference and contextual variables on the magnitude of age differences in memory for spatial location. Younger adults and 2 samples of older adults that differed in educational attainment, verbal intelligence, and working memory ability were compared. Ss studied and later recreated an arrangement of small objects that were placed on a plain map or a visually distinctive model. The objects were either unrelated or categorically related items. The results indicated that distinctive context enhanced spatial memory, and the magnitude of the benefit was generally comparable across age groups and stimulus sets. Hierarchical regression analyses confirmed that working memory resources accounted for a sizable proportion of age-related variance in memory for spatial location. The implications of these results for current views on age-related differences in memory for spatial location are discussed.

The effects of age, illustrations, and task variables on the performance of procedural assembly tasks

Older adults may be disadvantaged in the performance of procedural assembly tasks because of age-related declines in working memory operations. It was hypothesized that adding illustrations to instructional text may lessen age-related performance differences by minimizing processing demands on working memory in the elderly. In the present study, younger and older adults constructed a series of 3-dimensional objects from 3 types of instructions (text only, illustration only, or text and illustrations). Results indicated that instructions consisting of text and illustrations reduced errors in construction for both age groups compared with the other formats. Younger adults, however, outperformed older adults under all instructional format conditions. Measures of spatial and verbal working memory and text comprehension ability accounted for substantial age-related variance across the different format conditions but did not fully account for the age differences observed.

Individual difference and contextual variables influence spatial memory in younger and older adults

This study examined the influence of individual difference and contextual variables on the magnitude of age differences in memory for spatial location. Younger adults and 2 samples of older adults that differed in educational attainment, verbal intelligence, and working memory ability were compared. Ss studied and later recreated an arrangement of small objects that were placed on a plain map or a visually distinctive model. The objects were either unrelated or categorically related items. The results indicated that distinctive context enhanced spatial memory, and the magnitude of the benefit was generally comparable across age groups and stimulus sets. Hierarchical regression analyses confirmed that working memory resources accounted for a sizable proportion of age-related variance in memory for spatial location. The implications of these results for current views on age-related differences in memory for spatial location are discussed.

The effect of verbal elaborations on memory in young and older adults

The Stein paradigm was used to examine the circumstances under which verbal elaborations enhance memory in young and older adults. Subjects studied target adjectives that were embedded in one of three sentence contexts that varied in elaboration of the subject-adjective relationship: (1) nonelaborated base sentences; (2) base sentences with semantically consistent, but arbitrary verbal, elaborations; and (3) base sentences with explanatory verbal elaborations that clarified the significance of the subject-adjective relationship. The presence of the elaborations was varied at encoding and retrieval, and cued recall of the target adjectives was tested with incidental and intentional learning procedures. In Experiments 1A and 1B, explanatory elaborations at encoding and retrieval yielded the largest memorial facilitation for both young and older adults, and the benefit was comparable for the incidental and intentional learning measures. In Experiment 2, age-related differences in recall were minimal with explanatory elaborations at encoding and retrieval, but larger age differences occurred in the nonelaborated comparison conditions. In Experiment 3, explanatory elaborations present at encoding but not at retrieval enhanced recall when the original Stein stimuli were used, but not with the present stimuli. The implications of these results with regard to the mnemonic efficacy of verbal elaborations for young and older adults are discussed.

Adult age differences in spatial memory: effects of structural context and practice

We examined the effect of structural context on memory for spatial location in young and elderly women in two studies. Subjects studied and later reconstructed an array of visually identical objects that were positioned in a three-dimensional Plexiglas matrix. For half the subjects, small household objects were interspersed in the array to serve as spatial landmark cues during encoding and replacement. All subjects received two study and replacement trials. The results indicated that (a) older women remembered fewer locations than younger women but benefited more from landmark cues to location, (b) performance improved on the second replacement trial for the young but not for the older women, and (c) both age groups appeared to use similar processing strategies that were based on the vertical dimension of space. These results suggest that structural context enhances older adults' retention of three-dimensional spatial information. The implications of these data for the conceptual distinction between structural and organizational aspects of spatial context are discussed.

Effects of organization and working memory on age differences in memory for scene information

We examined the effects of organization and working memory on young and older adults' scene memory. Subjects discriminated transformed pictures from unchanged study items in organized or unorganized scenes. Memory was tested independently for two types of scene transformations: (a) relocations (two objects rearranged and one moved) and (b) substitutions (one object replaced by another). Organization had similar effects on young and older adults, improving memory for relocations but not substitutions. Working memory significantly predicted scene memory, except for relocations in organized scenes, and partially mediated the observed age effects. The results are discussed in relation to the resource and environmental support views of cognitive aging.

The effects of age, illustrations, and task variables on the performance of procedural assembly tasks

Older adults may be disadvantaged in the performance of procedural assembly tasks because of age-related declines in working memory operations. It was hypothesized that adding illustrations to instructional text may lessen age-related performance differences by minimizing processing demands on working memory in the elderly. In the present study, younger and older adults constructed a series of 3-dimensional objects from 3 types of instructions (text only, illustration only, or text and illustrations). Results indicated that instructions consisting of text and illustrations reduced errors in construction for both age groups compared with the other formats. Younger adults, however, outperformed older adults under all instructional format conditions. Measures of spatial and verbal working memory and text comprehension ability accounted for substantial age-related variance across the different format conditions but did not fully account for the age differences observed.

Effect of environmental support on implicit and explicit memory in younger and older adults

The study addressed 2 major issues: whether there are age differences on an implicit word-stem-completion task and whether age differences on both implicit and explicit memory would decrease with increased environmental support. A total of 287 Ss were presented with words in an incidental learning task with structural or semantic processing. Following 2 filler tasks, Ss received an implicit or an explicit word-stem-completion task. The number of letters in the stem varied from 2 to 4. Results yielded an Age x Memory Task dissociation such that there were large age differences on the explicit task and no age difference on the implicit task, regardless of whether Ss aware of the memory test were included or excluded. There was no evidence that environmental support improved older adults' performance more than that of younger adults on either memory task.

Effect of environmental support on implicit and explicit memory in younger and older adults

The study addressed 2 major issues: whether there are age differences on an implicit word-stem-completion task and whether age differences on both implicit and explicit memory would decrease with increased environmental support. A total of 287 Ss were presented with words in an incidental learning task with structural or semantic processing. Following 2 filler tasks, Ss received an implicit or an explicit word-stem-completion task. The number of letters in the stem varied from 2 to 4. Results yielded an Age x Memory Task dissociation such that there were large age differences on the explicit task and no age difference on the implicit task, regardless of whether Ss aware of the memory test were included or excluded. There was no evidence that environmental support improved older adults' performance more than that of younger adults on either memory task.

Medication adherence behaviors in older adults: Effects of external cognitive supports

Medication adherence behaviors of 61 elderly adults were examined using a sensitive microelectronic monitoring device. To assess the effects of external cognitive supports on adherence, different subjects received (a) no intervention, (b) an organizational chart, (c) an over-the-counter medication organizer, or (d) both the chart and organizer. The young-old subjects showed a high rate of adherence (94%) and were not improved by the addition of the interventions. Old-old subjects had a lower rate of adherence (85%) than young-olds. Omission errors were the most frequent mistakes and were lower in the condition in which subjects received both chart and organizer.

Importance of basic and applied research from the viewpoints of investigators in the psychology of aging

In this series of presentations, the importance and practical implications of many different research programs in the psychology of aging is presented from the viewpoints of the investigators themselves. These scientists discuss the implications and significance of their work for society as it affects other scientists, policy-makers, the media, and the public. The discussions make clear that the many of the problems associated with aging are essentially behavioral problems which can be prevented through behavioral change in the early as well as later years of the lifespan.

Particle-size distribution determination using optical sensing and neural networks

We present an inverse technique to determine particle-size distributions by training a layered perception neural network with optical backscattering measurements at three wavelengths. An advantage of this approach is that, even though the training may take a long time, once the neural network is trained the inverse problem of obtaining size distributions can be solved speedily and efficiently.

Age differences in memory for concrete and abstract pictures

There is considerable experimental literature showing that memory for complex pictures is relatively insensitive to age. Previous research has shown that young and old adults do not differ in their ability to recognize complex scenes. Other studies, however, using simple line drawings, do find age differences. This experiment investigated the possibility that the failure to find age differences with memory for complex pictures occurs because of memory support provided at encoding and retrieval by both the degree of visual detail (complex perceptual information) and the degree of propositional content (linguistic meaningfulness) that are represented in complex scenes. Pictures were shown to young and old subjects that differed in visual detail (complex vs simple) and propositional content (concrete vs abstract). The results indicated that age differences in picture memory emerge if the pictures are either deprived of visual detail or reduced in propositional content.

Effects of labeling techniques on memory and comprehension of prescription information in young and old adults

We conducted a study to determine the effects of presenting prescription information in a pictorial compared to a verbal format on comprehension and memory in young and old adults. Both comprehension and memory for drug information were studied as a function of age and presentation method. Participants received prescription instructions on actual medicine bottles in one of two formats: verbal instructions only, or verbal instructions mixed with pictorial representations. Results indicated that (a) younger adults' memory for prescription information was facilitated by the mixed instructions, but that mixed instructions appeared to hamper older adults' memory for prescription information; (b) younger adults recalled more information overall relative to older adults across both presentation conditions; and (c) older adults were less able to comprehend prescription information relative to younger adults. Results suggest that well-organized verbal prescription labels are more facilitative for the elderly and that additional efforts must be undertaken to improve the clarity of labeling on prescription drugs.

Effects of distinctive context on memory for objects and their locations in young and elderly adults

Sharps and Gollin (1987, 1988) reported that older adults' memory for both objects and their spatial location is more facilitated than that of young adults when items are studied in a distinctive visual context. They also reported that age differences in spatial memory and item memory can be ameliorated if the items are studied in a distinctive context. The goal of this study was to verify and extend these findings by examining memory for everyday objects when the objects were studied on a (a) plain surface, (b) black-and-white schematic map, or (c) colored model. In Experiment 1, item memory was examined, and in Experiment 2, spatial memory was studied. The results indicated that spatial memory improved with the addition of distinctive context but item memory did not. Moreover, there was no evidence that elderly adults were more facilitated by the distinctive context than were the young.

Metamemories of memory researchers

In the present study, a metamemory questionnaire was completed by three groups of individuals: memory research psychologists who attended a small international convention on everyday memory processes in the aged, academic psychologists with a limited knowledge of the memory literature, and nonpsychologist college professors. There was little evidence that memory psychologists reported using strategies to remember things that were different from the strategies of other academics. The most used and most recommended technique for remembering was to write things down, followed by general internal mnemonic systems such as organization and rehearsal. The least used and least recommended strategies for all three groups were formal mnemonic systems, such as the peg-word system or the method of loci.

Effects of contextual integration on recall of pictures by older adults

This study investigated age-related differences in the ability to utilize integrative relationships between target and context as a memory support by directly manipulating the relationship between a target picture and context. We hypothesized that as the active integration required between target and cue increased, age differences would increase. Old and young adults were instructed to remember target pictures, each presented with a pictorial cue. The cue/target relationship was one of three types: categorically related (high integration condition), visually interacting (high integration condition), or unrelated and noninteracting (low integration condition). Cued recall of the targets was tested. The results indicated that the poorly integrated target-context relationship produced the largest age difference, supporting the integration hypothesis.

Effects of distinctive context on memory for objects and their locations in young and elderly adults

Sharps and Gollin (1987, 1988) reported that older adults' memory for both objects and their spatial location is more facilitated than that of young adults when items are studied in a distinctive visual context. They also reported that age differences in spatial memory and item memory can be ameliorated if the items are studied in a distinctive context. The goal of this study was to verify and extend these findings by examining memory for everyday objects when the objects were studied on a (a) plain surface, (b) black-and-white schematic map, or (c) colored model. In Experiment 1, item memory was examined, and in Experiment 2, spatial memory was studied. The results indicated that spatial memory improved with the addition of distinctive context but item memory did not. Moreover, there was no evidence that elderly adults were more facilitated by the distinctive context than were the young.

Effects of age and a divided attention task presented during encoding and retrieval on memory

The present studies were designed to examine age differences in memory when attention was divided during encoding, retrieval, or at both times. In Experiment 1, Ss studied categorized words while performing a number-monitoring task during encoding, retrieval, or at both times. Older Ss' free recall and clustering performance declined more than that of young Ss when attention was divided at encoding, but there was no similar age interaction when divided attention occurred at retrieval. In Experiment 2, the task demands at retrieval were increased by using a fast-paced, cued-recall task. The results remained unchanged from Experiment 1. Again, an age interaction occurred with divided attention at encoding but not at retrieval. These results were unexpected, given the emphasis in the memory-aging literature on increased difficulty of retrieval by older adults. The findings pose difficulties for limited processing resource views of age differences in memory.

Quality of instructions on prescription drug labels: effects on memory and comprehension in young and old adults

We examined both comprehension of and memory for information on prescription labels as a function of age, memory load, and study time across three experiments with young and old adults. We found that older adults consistently manifested poorer recall of prescription information than young adults; age effects occurred even when participants received unlimited study time; and both young and old adults had substantial difficulty comprehending drug information as it is presented from a pharmacy.

Age-related differences in three-dimensional spatial memory

This study focused on understanding age differences in spatial memory within a framework relating stimulus qualities to performance. It was hypothesized that elderly adults' spatial memory would be more disadvantaged, relative to young adults, with abstract, meaningless objects than with everyday objects. The study examined differences in memory for the horizontal, vertical, and depth dimensional planes of space in a 4 x 4 x 4 plexiglass cube. College students and community-dwelling adults studied and later reconstructed a three-dimensional arrangement of common or abstract objects located in a compartmentalized cube so that relocation errors could be independently measured within the horizontal, vertical, and depth dimensions. The principal findings were that (a) the magnitude of object displacement in the relocation task was greater for older adults; (b) young and elderly adults differed primarily in terms of large rather than small displacement errors; (c) the locations of meaningless items were more difficult to remember for both age groups; and (d) displacement errors in the vertical dimension were greater than the horizontal and depth dimensions, although this effect was only significant with meaningful items.

Effects of age and a divided attention task presented during encoding and retrieval on memory

The present studies were designed to examine age differences in memory when attention was divided during encoding, retrieval, or at both times. In Experiment 1, Ss studied categorized words while performing a number-monitoring task during encoding, retrieval, or at both times. Older Ss' free recall and clustering performance declined more than that of young Ss when attention was divided at encoding, but there was no similar age interaction when divided attention occurred at retrieval. In Experiment 2, the task demands at retrieval were increased by using a fast-paced, cued-recall task. The results remained unchanged from Experiment 1. Again, an age interaction occurred with divided attention at encoding but not at retrieval. These results were unexpected, given the emphasis in the memory-aging literature on increased difficulty of retrieval by older adults. The findings pose difficulties for limited processing resource views of age differences in memory.

Age differences in encoding specificity

In two experiments (one under full attention, the other under divided attention), old and young adults were presented with a cued recall task in an encoding specificity paradigm. Targets and associated cues were either pictures or matched words, and there was either a strong or weak semantic relationship between targets and cues. Additionally, cues presented at recall were either the same as or different from those presented at encoding, resulting in four encoding cue--retrieval cue combinations: (a) strong encoding cue and (same) strong retrieval cue; (b) weak encoding cue and (same) weak retrieval cue; (c) weak encoding cue and (different) strong retrieval cue; (d) strong encoding cue and (different) weak retrieval cue. For the most part, the results revealed strong encoding specificity effects for both age groups, as both old and young participants recalled more when the same cues were presented at encoding and retrieval than when different cues were presented. However, when elderly participants received verbal cues under divided attention conditions, evidence for general encoding rather than encoding specificity occurred. Results are discussed in terms of both the encoding specificity principle as well as a more process-oriented interpretation.

Performance analysis of associative memories with nonlinearities in the correlation domain

A matched filter-based architecture for associative memories (MFAMs) has been proposed by many researchers. The correlation from a leg of a matched filter bank, after being altered nonlinearly, weights its corresponding library vector. The weighted vectors are summed and clipped to give an estimate of the library vector closest to the input. We analyze the performance of such architectures for binary and/or bipolar inputs and libraries. Sufficient conditions are derived for the correlation nonlinearity so that the MFAM outputs the correct result. If, for example, N bipolar library vectors are stored, theicorrelation nonlinearity Z(x) = N(x/2) will always result in that library vector closest to the input in the Hamming sense.

Forgetting of pictures over a long retention interval in young and older adults

Young and older adults were presented with pictures for study. Their recognition of the information was tested at five retention intervals: immediately, and 48 hr, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks later. The main finding of interest was that picture recognition did not show an age-related decline until the 1-week retention interval.