Phase TEM for biological imaging utilizing a Boersch electrostatic phase plate: theory and practice

A Boersch electrostatic phase plate (BEPP) used in a transmission electron microscope (TEM) system can provide tuneable phase shifts and overcome the low contrast problem for biological imaging. Theoretically, a pure phase image with a high phase contrast can be obtained using a BEPP. However, a currently available TEM system utilizing a BEPP cannot achieve sufficiently high phase efficiency for biological imaging, owing to the practical conditions. The low phase efficiency is a result of the blocking of partial unscattered electrons by BEPP, and the contribution of absorption contrast. The fraction of blocked unscattered beam is related to BEPP dimensions and to divergence of the illumination system of the TEM. These practical issues are discussed in this paper. Phase images of biological samples (negatively stained ferritin) obtained by utilizing a BEPP are reported, and the phase contrast was found to be enhanced by a factor of approximately 1.5, based on the calculation using the Rose contrast criterion. The low gain in phase contrast is consistent with the expectation from the current TEM/BEPP system. A new generation of phase TEM utilizing BEPP and designed for biological imaging with a high phase efficiency is proposed.

Self-masked high-aspect-ratio polymer nanopillars

In this paper, a simple, cost effective, and potentially universal method is proposed for the formation of high-aspect-ratio nanopillars on various polymers. Our method involves direct reactive ion etching (RIE) using self-formed nanomasks oriented from a dummy material (cover glass). The mechanism is evaluated using nanopillar characterization and surface analysis results from x-ray photoelectron microscopy (XPS) and Auger electron microscopy (AES). By varying the dummy material configuration and modifying the RIE etching time, the distribution and dimensions of the nanopillars can be manipulated to meet a range of requirements. The maximum structural aspect ratio of 60 (6.7 microm high and 112 nm thick nanopillars) can be easily prepared using a 60 min self-masked high-aspect-ratio polymer nanopillars fabrication (SMHAR) process on poly(monochloro-p-xylylene) (Parylene C). Furthermore, nanopillars can also be generated using the same SMHAR process on poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) and SU-8 photoresist, creating nanostructured PDMS or SU-8 materials in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) or nano/micro-electromechanical systems (N/MEMS).

Micro-patternable nanoporous polymer integrated with microstructures for molecular filtration

This paper proposes a facile method to fabricate nanoporous microstructures by a photo-patternable SU-8 photoresist, to serve as a molecular filter in microfluidic systems. The fabrication process involves solvent-controlled nanoporous structure formation combined with standard photolithography steps for microstructure fabrication. The self-formed nanoporous morphology embedded inside the microstructure exhibits a sufficient mechanical strength and eliminates complex processes or protocols for integration/assembly of nano- and microstructures. Field emission gun scanning electronic microscopy (FEGSEM) images showed the fabricated nanoporous morphologies with embedded nanogaps of about 6-10 nm. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images also depicted a clear difference on the degree of porosity between the solvent-controlled SU-8 and the standard resist. Fluorescent dyes, namely Rhodamine-B and Rhodamine-6G, were employed to estimate the diffusivity of the fabricated SU-8 based nanofilter and demonstrated that the Rhodamine based fluorescent molecules can penetrate these nanosized filtration structures. The fabricated nanofilter was capable of providing a molecular weight cut-off range up to 70 kDa, estimated roughly for a molecule with a diameter of 6-10 nm. This simple process provides a novel way to integrate the nanofiltration capability into microstructures while maintaining a sufficient mechanical strength for molecular level filtration in lab-on-chip (LOC) systems.

A gold-nanoparticle-enhanced immune sensor based on fiber optic interferometry

A method using gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to enhance fiber optic interferometry (GNPFOI) for immune-sensing is reported in this paper. It is suggested that an enlarged index mismatch and an elongated optical path by GNPs conjugated on recognition proteins will contribute most to signal enhancement in the interference fringe shift. Theoretical and experimental results show that the interference fringe shift is linearly related to both the amount and size of the GNPs binding on the sensor surface. The detected signal for 30 nm GNPs can reach a lowest detection limit of 18 pM (10(10) particles ml(-1)). Immune-sensing for rabbit IgG as the antigen to anti-rabbit IgG has been demonstrated and a detection cycle has been completed by elution buffer for surface regeneration. The repeatability of the immune-sensing on one GNPFOI sensor has also been verified by three identical cycles, and the detection limit for 13 nm GNPs conjugated anti-rabbit IgG reaches 0.17 nM (∼25.5 ng ml(-1)). The sensory mechanism has the potential to be engineered on the tip of a needle-type micro-device, which would allow it to monitor immune recognition signals in the future.

Engineering the 3D architecture and hydrophobicity of methyltrichlorosilane nanostructures

Three-dimensional nano-architectures with varying shape, morphology and size were fabricated by the phase separation of methyltrichlorosilane (CH(3)SiCl(3)) on commercially available glass and SiO(2) substrates. By changing the synthesis conditions, CH(3)SiCl(3) nanostructures evolved from discrete to quasi-network or from fibrous to spherical forms. Individual nanofibers and nanospheres have diameters of 18-90 and 240-300 nm, respectively, while the film thicknesses could reach 320 nm. The possible mechanisms for the three-dimensional growth of nanofibers and nanospheres are proposed. The resultant morphologies exhibited two main energy states: Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter states. Moreover, superhydrophobic surfaces with both high contact angle and high hysteresis resulted from the growth of the nanostructures. The new approaches presented herein are important additions to the current range of surface modification methods and could harness novel physical and chemical properties conducive to optimal performance in biosensing, antistiction, droplet manipulation, drag reduction, protein adsorption, and cell adhesion studies.

Micro-Stamp Systems for Batch-Filling, Parallel-Spotting, and Continuously Printing of Multiple Biosample Fluids

Microarrays simultaneously screen tens to thousands of biosamples to observe biochemical activities in protein—protein, protein—nucleic acid and small molecule interactions. In this high throughput analysis, rapid and reliable printing technologies are highly desired with less deterioration on biosamples during process. This study introduces several micro-contact printing systems to print out multiple proteins simultaneously, uniformly and continuously with batch-filling capability for rapid microarray formation, with very gentle process for biosample preservation. This printing system consists of two chips, including a micro-filling chip and a micro-stamp chip, for rapid/accurate registration and batch operation. The micro-filling chip can simultaneously transfer numerous protein solutions into the micro-stamp chip in seconds by capillary force without cross-contamination, while preserving the functionality of proteins. Different proteins can be dispensed into the corresponding channels and driven into the tips of the micro stamps. The micro stamp can be then brought to contact with the substrate to produce bio-fluid spot arrays. These devices have a potential to be expanded to a high throughput system for simultaneously printing hundreds of bio-fluid spots for hundreds times in minutes, and to form dense bio-microarrays for disease diagnosis or drug screening.

Microfluidic systems integrated with two-dimensional surface plasmon resonance phase imaging systems for microarray immunoassay

This study reports a microfluidic chip integrated with an arrayed immunoassay for surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phase imaging of specific bio-samples. The SPR phase imaging system uses a surface-sensitive optical technique to detect two-dimensional (2D) spatial phase variation caused by rabbit immunoglobulin G (IgG) adsorbed on an anti-rabbit IgG film. The microfluidic chip was fabricated by using micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) technology on glass and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates to facilitate well-controlled and reproducible sample delivery and detection. Since SPR detection is very sensitive to temperature variation, a micromachine-based temperature control module comprising micro-heaters and temperature sensors was used to maintain a uniform temperature distribution inside the arrayed detection area with a variation of less than 0.3 degrees C. A self-assembled monolayer (SAM) technique was used to pattern the surface chemistry on a gold layer to immobilize anti-rabbit IgG on the modified substrates. The microfluidic chip is capable of transporting a precise amount of IgG solution by using micropumps/valves to the arrayed detection area such that highly sensitive, highly specific bio-sensing can be achieved. The developed microfluidic chips, which employed SPR phase imaging for immunoassay analysis, could successfully detect the interaction of anti-rabbit IgG and IgG. The interactions between immobilized anti-rabbit IgG and IgG with various concentrations have been measured. The detection limit is experimentally found to be 1 x 10(-4)mg/ml (0.67 nM). The specificity of the arrayed immunoassay was also explored. Experimental data show that only the rabbit IgG can be detected and the porcine IgG cannot be adsorbed. The developed microfluidic system is promising for various applications including medical diagnostics, microarray detection and observing protein-protein interactions.

The fabrication and application of Zernike electrostatic phase plate

The Zernike electrostatic phase plate (ZEPP) consisting of three ring electrodes and two insulating rings has been fabricated using Micro Electro-Mechanical System processes. The electrostatic field produced in the phase plate was measured by electrostatic force microscopy. The electrostatic field and focal length of the phase plate is calculated using electron optics principles. The comparison of the experimental electrostatic field and the theoretical calculated is discussed. Finally, we report the application of ZEPP to enhance contrast of the SiON(x)/SiO(2) interface in an NMOS semiconductor device. The quantitative analysis of the contrast enhancement versus the applied bias is discussed in detail.

Nanoparticle-based in vivo investigation on blood-brain barrier permeability following ischemia and reperfusion

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) represents a significant impediment to a large variety of central nervous system-active agents. In the current study, we applied fluorescent polystyrene nanospheres (20 nm) to study the BBB permeability following cerebral ischemia and reperfusion. A microdialysis probe was implanted in the cerebral cortex of an anesthetized rat injected with fluorescent polystyrene nanospheres. The circulating nanospheres extravasating to the brain extracellular fluids were collected by the probe. Fluorescence intensity in the microdialysates throughout the course of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion was measured. Cerebral ischemia and reperfusion induced transient accumulations of extracellular nanospheres in the brain. The accumulation of nanospheres may result from their extravasation from the blood vessels. The concurrent cerebral oxygen levels monitored using oxygen-dependent quenching of phosphorescence decreased following ischemia and returned to their original levels after reperfusion. In conclusion, we demonstrated that high temporal resolution measurements of BBB permeability in vivo can be obtained using fluorescence polystyrene nanospheres and that these data correlate with changes of cerebral oxygen concentration. This present investigation indicates that nanoparticles have potential clinical applications involving drug delivery and determination of therapeutic efficacy and on-site diagnosis.

Off-angle illumination induced surface plasmon coupling in subwavelength metallic slits

A directional coupling effect of surface plasmon waves (SPW) in subwavelength metallic slits is studied. The p-polarized wave generates two SPW modes in the subwavelength slit. As the angle of incidence is changed, coupling arises between both SPW modes. The coupling length increases exponentially with the width of the slit but is independent of the angle of incidence. At a coupling length and an incident angle of ~30 degrees , light is emitted from one side of the slit. The single side emission light has a width smaller than 50nm and double peak intensity than at normal incidence. The SPW coupling effect reveals a simple way for producing a nanometer light source of high transmission intensity.

Microsized 2D protein arrays immobilized by micro-stamps and micro-wells for disease diagnosis and drug screening

A novel method of protein array immobilization, using micro stamps to pick up proteins from micro wells and deposit them on to a bio-absorption chip, has been developed. This method can potentially transfer several protein spots on to an organized array for applications such as disease diagnosis and drug screening by parallel biological or chemical processes. Fabrication of the micro stamp and the micro well arrays involves thick-photoresist lithography, bulk micromachining, and a molding process, whereas fabrication of the bio-absorption chip involves amino-modification by use of APTS (aminopropyItrimethoxysilane) and surface activation by use of BS3 (bis-sulfosuccinimidyl suberate). Successful transfer of protein on to the bio-absorption surface using the micro stamp-well array has been demonstrated. The size variation between different stamping spots has been shown to be less than 10%, and the APTS-BS3 surface has also been proved to bind the protein efficiently. Appreciable protein retention was achieved during 6-h washing, which shows the binding strength of the bio-absorption surface is sufficient for protein processing.