Adenoviruses of canine and human origins in stool samples from free-living pampas foxes (Lycalopex gymnocercus) and crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) in São Francisco de Paula, Rio dos Sinos basin

The spread of enteric viruses of domestic animals and human beings to wild species can be facilitated by the resistance of these viruses on the environment and their ability to be transmitted by water and contaminated food. The health status of the populations of pampas foxes Lycalopex gymnocercus) and crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) is largely unknown and the landscapes occupied by these animals in southern Brazil have been threatened by human occupation and expansion of agriculture. In this work, the search of genomes of human and canine adenoviruses in feces from these wild carnivores was used to track the dissemination of domestic animals and human pathogens to the free-living populations in a wildlife reserve located in southern Brazil. This was performed by virus-specific differential real-time polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) on stool specimens, avoiding capture and additional stress to the animals. Genus-specific conventional reverse-transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) was complementarily performed aiming the detection of enteroviruses (EV) and rotaviruses (RV) on these same samples. HAdV genomes were found on 14 out of the 17 (82.35%) stool samples analysed, whereas CAV was found co-infecting 5 of these samples. RV genomes were detected on 7 of the 17 samples (41.18%) and all samples were negative for EV. The results point to the dispersion of HAdV and RV at a high rate to these species of South American wild carnivores, which can be an effect of growing anthropisation of the habitat of these animals.

Prediction of phylogeographic endemism in an environmentally complex biome

Phylogeographic endemism, the degree to which the history of recently evolved lineages is spatially restricted, reflects fundamental evolutionary processes such as cryptic divergence, adaptation and biological responses to environmental heterogeneity. Attempts to explain the extraordinary diversity of the tropics, which often includes deep phylogeographic structure, frequently invoke interactions of climate variability across space, time and topography. To evaluate historical versus contemporary drivers of phylogeographic endemism in a tropical system, we analyse the effects of current and past climatic variation on the genetic diversity of 25 vertebrates in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest. We identify two divergent bioclimatic domains within the forest and high turnover around the Rio Doce. Independent modelling of these domains demonstrates that endemism patterns are subject to different climatic drivers. Past climate dynamics, specifically areas of relative stability, predict phylogeographic endemism in the north. Conversely, contemporary climatic heterogeneity better explains endemism in the south. These results accord with recent speleothem and fossil pollen studies, suggesting that climatic variability through the last 250 kyr impacted the northern and the southern forests differently. Incorporating sub-regional differences in climate dynamics will enhance our ability to understand those processes shaping high phylogeographic and species endemism, in the Neotropics and beyond.

Monitoring of metals, organic compounds and coliforms in water catchment points from the Sinos River basin

Unplanned use and occupation of the land without respecting its capacity of assimilation and environmental purification leads to the degradation of the environment and of water used for human consumption. Agricultural areas, industrial plants and urban centres developed without planning and the control of effluent discharges are the main causes of water pollution in river basins that receive all the liquid effluents produced in those places. Over the last decades, environmental management has become part of governmental agendas in search of solutions for the preservation of water quality and the restoration of already degraded resources. This study evaluated the conditions of the main watercourse of the Sinos River basin by monitoring the main physical, chemical and microbiological parameters described in the CONAMA Resolution no. 357/2005.The set of parameters evaluated at five catchment points of water human consumption revealed a river that has different characteristics in each reach, as the upper reach was class 1, whereas the middle and lower reaches of the basin were class 4. Monitoring pointed to households as the main sources of pollutants in those reaches, although metals used in the industrial production of the region were found in the samples analyzed.

Moving beyond classical markers of water quality: detection of enteric viruses and genotoxicity in water of the Sinos River

<p>It is well recognized that the classical biological and chemical markers of environmental pollution do not necessarily indicate the presence or absence of emerging threats to public health, such as waterborne viruses and genotoxicants. The purpose of this preliminary study was to evaluate the presence of material of enteroviruses (EV), rotavirus (RV) and adenovirus (AdV) and genotoxicity in water samples from points of routine monitoring of water quality in the main course of the Sinos River. The points are classified into different levels of pollution in accordance to the Brazilian federal regulations. Viral genomes from EV, AdV were detected in two of the 4 collection points regardless of the level of urbanisation of the surrounding areas. In contrast, genotoxicity was not observed in piava (<italic>Leporinus obtusidens</italic>) fingerlings cultivated on these same water samples. Results were compared with classical physical, chemical and microbiological parameters. There was no clear evidence of association between any of the classical markers and the presence of viral genomes in the water samples tested.</p>

Genetic evaluation of milk yield in Alpine goats for the first four lactations using random regression models

Random regression models have been used in evaluating test-day milk yield, providing accurate estimates of genetic values in animals. However, herd evaluation with only information from the first lactation may not be the best option from an economic perspective. Other factors should be taken into account, particularly other lactations. Our objective in this study was to analyze the genetic divergence between the first four lactations of Alpine goats. The RENPED software was used to perform descriptive statistics, check for errors in pedigree, recode the data, and for Pearson's and Spearman's correlations. The WOMBAT software was used to estimate the variance components and predict the breeding values. The CALC software was adopted to calculate the percentage of coincidence between the ranking of the animals and the animals kept in common at each lactation evaluation. The results show that selection using only the first lactation in small herds with a low degree of technology can be employed as a palliative measure, in view of the difficulty in evaluating all lactations. However, the selection of breeding goats and the production of catalogues should not be based only on the first lactation, because the results demonstrate inversions in the classification of the best breeders when other lactations are analyzed.

Revisiting the vanishing refuge model of diversification

Much of the debate around speciation and historical biogeography has focused on the role of stabilizing selection on the physiological (abiotic) niche, emphasizing how isolation and vicariance, when associated with niche conservatism, may drive tropical speciation. Yet, recent re-emphasis on the ecological dimensions of speciation points to a more prominent role of divergent selection in driving genetic, phenotypic, and niche divergence. The vanishing refuge model (VRM), first described by Vanzolini and Williams (1981), describes a process of diversification through climate-driven habitat fragmentation and exposure to new environments, integrating both vicariance and divergent selection. This model suggests that dynamic climates and peripheral isolates can lead to genetic and functional (i.e., ecological and phenotypic) diversity, resulting in sister taxa that occupy contrasting habitats with abutting distributions. Here, we provide predictions for populations undergoing divergence according to the VRM that encompass habitat dynamics, phylogeography, and phenotypic differentiation across populations. Such integrative analyses can, in principle, differentiate the operation of the VRM from other speciation models. We applied these principles to a lizard species, Coleodactylus meridionalis, which was used to illustrate the model in the original paper. We incorporate data on inferred historic habitat dynamics, phylogeography and thermal physiology to test for divergence between coastal and inland populations in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Environmental and genetic analyses are concordant with divergence through the VRM, yet physiological data are not. We emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary approaches to test this and alternative speciation models while seeking to explain the extraordinarily high genetic and phenotypic diversity of tropical biomes.

Dynamics of chromosomal evolution in the genus Hypsiboas (Anura: Hylidae)

Hylidae is one of the most species-rich families of anurans, and 40% of representatives in this group occur in Brazil. In spite of such remarkable diversity, little is known about this family and its taxonomical and systematic features. Most hylids have 2n = 24, even though most of the cytogenetic data are mainly obtained based on the conventional chromosomal staining and are available for only 16% of Hypsiboas species, a genus accounting for about 10% of the hylid diversity. In this study, cytogenetic data of distinct species and populations of Hypsiboas were analyzed, and the evolutionary dynamics of chromosomal macro- and microstructure of these amphibians were discussed. Contrary to the conservativeness of 2n = 24, this genus is characterized by a high variation of chromosomal morphology with as much as 8 karyotype patterns. Differences in the number and location of nucleolus organizer regions and C-bands allowed the identification of geographical variants within nominal species and cytotaxonomical chromosomal markers. Comparative analyses revealed a strong phylogeographic relationship between chromosomal patterns in this group.

Using the Small Ruminant Nutrition System to develop and evaluate an alternative approach to estimating the dry matter intake of goats when accounting for ruminal fiber stratification

The first objective of this research was to assess the ability of the Small Ruminant Nutrition System (SRNS) mechanistic model to predict metabolizable energy intake (MEI) and milk yield (MY) when using a heterogeneous fiber pool scenario (GnG1), compared with a traditional, homogeneous scenario (G1). The second objective was to evaluate an alternative approach to estimating the dry matter intake (DMI) of goats to be used in the SRNS model. The GnG1 scenario considers an age-dependent fractional transference rate for fiber particles from the first ruminal fiber pool (raft) to an escapable pool (λr), and that this second ruminal fiber pool (i.e., escapable pool) follows an age-independent fractional escape rate for fiber particles (ke). Scenario G1 adopted only a single fractional passage rate (kp). All parameters were estimated individually by using equations published in the literature, except for 2 passage rate equations in the G1 scenario: 1 developed with sheep data (G1-S) and another developed with goat data (G1-G). The alternative approach to estimating DMI was based on an optimization process using a series of dietary constraints. The DMI, MEI, and MY estimated for the GnG1 and G1 scenarios were compared with the results of an independent dataset (n=327) that contained information regarding DMI, MEI, MY, and milk and dietary compositions. The evaluation of the scenarios was performed using the coefficient of determination (R(2)) between the observed and predicted values, mean bias (MB), bias correction factor (Cb), and concordance correlation coefficient. The MEI estimated by the GnG1 scenario yielded precise and accurate values (R(2) = 082; MB = 0.21 Mcal/d; Cb = 0.98) similar to those of the G1-S (R(2) = 0.85; MB = 0.10 Mcal/d; Cb=0.99) and G1-G (R(2) = 0.84; MB = 0.18 Mcal/d; Cb = 0.98) scenarios. The results were also similar for the MY, but a substantial MB was found as follows: GnG1 (R(2) = 0.74; MB = 0.70 kg/d; Cb = 0.79), G1-S (R(2) = 0.71; MB = 0.58 kg/d(1); Cb = 0.85) and G1-G (R(2) = 0.71; MB = 0.65 kg/d; Cb = 0.82). The alternative approach for DMI prediction provided better results with the G1-G scenario (R(2)=0.88; MB = -71.67 g/d; Cb = 0.98). We concluded that the GnG1 scenario is valid within mechanistic models such as the SRNS and that the alternative approach for estimating DMI is reasonable and can be used in diet formulations for goats.

Functional assessment of toad parotoid macroglands: a study based on poison replacement after mechanical compression

Toads have a pair of parotoid macroglands behind the eyes that secrete poison used in passive defence against predators. These macroglands are composed of juxtaposed alveoli, each one bearing a syncytial gland, all connected to the exterior by ducts. When the parotoids are bitten, the poison is expelled on the predator oral mucosa in the form of jets, causing several pharmacological actions. After poison release, the empty secretory syncytia immediately collapse in the interior of their respective alveoli and gradually start refilling. After parotoid manual compression, simulating a predator's bite, we studied, by means of morphological methods, the replacement of the poison inside the alveoli. The results showed that after compression, a considerable number of alveoli remained intact. In the alveoli that were effectively affected the recovery occurs in different levels, from total to punctual and often restrict to some areas of the syncytia. The severely affected alveoli seem not recover their original functional state. The fact that only a part of the parotoid alveoli is compressed during an attack seems to be crucial for toad survival, since the amphibian, after being bitten by a predator, do not lose all its poison stock, remaining protected in case of new attacks.

A new Andean species of Philodryas (Dipsadidae, Xenodontinae) from Ecuador

We describe a new species of Philodryas from the highlands of southern Ecuador. The new species is distinguished from all known species of Philodryas by a unique combination of coloration, scalation, and hemipenial characters. The new species resembles Philodryas simonsii in color pattern. However, they differ notoriously by their hemipenial morphology. The three other trans-Andean members of the genus (Philodryas simonsii, Philodryas chamissonis, and Philodryas tachymenoides), along with the new species, compose a probably monophyletic group that may be characterized by the presence of ungrooved postdiastemal teeth in the maxilla. Unlike most species of the genus Philodryas, the new species shows a restricted distribution, being apparently endemic to a small region of high-altitude (3150-4450m) grasslands in the southern Andes of Ecuador.

A molecular phylogeny recovers Strabomantis aramunha Cassimiro, Verdade and Rodrigues, 2008 and Haddadus binotatus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Terrarana) as sister taxa

The taxonomic and biogeographic affinities of Strabomantis aramunha from the Campos Rupestres of Brazil are intriguing. A unique skull morphology of females suggest affinities with the broad-headed eleutherodactylines of Northwestern South America in the genus Strabomantis. Male and juvenile morphology nonetheless suggest S. aramunha could be related to members of the recently described genus Haddadus from eastern Brazil. We assess the affinities of S. aramunha using molecular phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial (12S, tRNAval, 16S, cyt b) and nuclear sequences (RAG-1and rhodopsin). Bayesian inference, likelihood, and parsimony analysis recover a highly supported clade with S. aramunha and H. binotatus as sister taxa. Accordingly, we transfer S. aramunha to Haddadus, and provide a new generic definition of the later. The distribution of species in Haddadus (highlands of the Espinhaço mountain Range and coastal eastern Brazil) is now concordant with the general pattern observed for other species in the area.

Passive and active defense in toads: the parotoid macroglands in Rhinella marina and Rhaebo guttatus

Amphibians have many skin poison glands used in passive defense, in which the aggressor causes its own poisoning when biting prey. In some amphibians the skin glands accumulate in certain regions forming macroglands, such as the parotoids of toads. We have discovered that the toad Rhaebo guttatus is able to squirt jets of poison towards the aggressor, contradicting the typical amphibian defense. We studied the R. guttatus chemical defense, comparing it with Rhinella marina, a sympatric species showing typical toad passive defense. We found that only in R. guttatus the parotoid is adhered to the scapula and do not have a calcified dermal layer. In addition, in this species, the plugs obstructing the glandular ducts are more fragile when compared to R. marina. As a consequence, the manual pressure necessary to extract the poison from the parotoid is twice as high in R. marina when compared to that used in R. guttatus. Compared to R. marina, the poison of R. guttatus is less lethal, induces edema and provokes nociception four times more intense. We concluded that the ability of R. guttatus to voluntary squirt poison is directly related to its stereotyped defensive behavior, together with the peculiar morphological characteristics of its parotoids. Since R. guttatus poison is practically not lethal, it is possibly directed to predators' learning, causing disturbing effects such as pain and edema. The unique mechanism of defense of R. guttatus may mistakenly justify the popular myth that toads, in general, squirt poison into people's eyes.

Factors that influence the test day milk yield and composition

The objective of this research was to study the factors that influence the test day milk yield (TDMY) and percentages of protein, fat, lactose, and total dry extract obtained on test day. We evaluated 110,732 weekly milk production records from 1496 goats and 19,271 monthly milk constituent records from 1245 Alpine and Saanen goats, which were collected from 1997 to 2010 in the goat sector at Universidade Federal de Viçosa. To ensure greater record reliability, only lactation data with kidding order between 1 to 6, type of kidding data including 0 to 3 kids, milk control years after 1997, and genetic groupings other than types 7 or 9 were considered, due to the relative lack of information recorded for some classes of these factors. Data in which the reported milk days were less than 7 or greater than 315 were also eliminated. Goats aged greater than 300 days at calving and those aged less than 6 years at control were considered in this study. Milk production was higher in the dry season in comparison to the rainy season. Genetic grouping did not influence all traits in both breedings. The TDMY tended to increase along with increasing age of the goats at kidding, while the opposite trend was observed relative to kidding order. Factors that significantly influenced all of the studied traits varied, and the factors that significantly influenced each trait were altered between the relationship of Alpine and Saanen breeds. Thus, the analysis of factors that influence traits to be evaluated in the herd under study is critical for defining the best evaluation model.

The lowest diploid number in Testudines: Banding patterns, telomeric and 45S rDNA FISH in Peltocephalus dumerilianus, 2n = 26 and FN = 52 (Pleurodira, Podocnemididae)

The karyotype of the big-headed Amazon River turtle, Peltocephalus dumerilianus, is characterized based on a sample of seven juveniles from Reserva Biológica do Rio Trombetas, Pará State, Brazil (1°30′ S, 56°34′ W). Here we present the first results on GTG and CBG-banding patterns, Ag-NOR staining and FISH, with telomeric and 45S rDNA sequences as probes. A cytogenetic comparison with related Podocnemidae is also provided.