Training for vigilance on the move: a video game-based paradigm for sustained attention

The capacity for superior vigilance can be trained by using knowledge of results (KR). Our present experiments demonstrate the efficacy of such training using a first-person perspective movement videogame-based platform in samples of students and Soldiers. Effectiveness was assessed by manipulating KR during a training phase and withdrawing it in a subsequent transfer phase. Relative to a no KR control condition, KR systematically improved performance for both Soldiers and students. These results build upon our previous findings that demonstrated that a video game-based platform can be used to create a movement-centred sustained attention task with important elements of traditional vigilance. The results indicate that KR effects in sustained attention extend to a first person perspective movement based paradigm, and that these effects occur in professional military as well as a more general population. Such sustained attention training can save lives and the present findings demonstrate one particular avenue to achieve this goal. Practitioner Summary: Sustained attention can be trained by means of knowledge of results using a videogame-based platform with samples of students and Soldiers. Four experiments demonstrate that a dynamic, first-person perspective video game environment can serve to support effective sustained attention training in professional military as well as a more general population.

Human interaction with robotic systems: performance and workload evaluations

We first tested the effect of differing tactile informational forms (i.e. directional cues vs. static cues vs. dynamic cues) on objective performance and perceived workload in a collaborative human-robot task. A second experiment evaluated the influence of task load and informational message type (i.e. single words vs. grouped phrases) on that same collaborative task. In both experiments, the relationship of personal characteristics (attentional control and spatial ability) to performance and workload was also measured. In addition to objective performance and self-report of cognitive load, we evaluated different physiological responses in each experiment. Results showed a performance-workload association for directional cues, message type and task load. EEG measures however, proved generally insensitive to such task load manipulations. Where significant EEG effects were observed, right hemisphere amplitude differences predominated, although unexpectedly these latter relationships were negative. Although EEG measures were partially associated with performance, they appear to possess limited utility as measures of workload in association with tactile displays. Practitioner Summary: As practitioners look to take advantage of innovative tactile displays in complex operational realms like human-robotic interaction, associated performance effects are mediated by cognitive workload. Despite some patterns of association, reliable reflections of operator state can be difficult to discern and employ as the number, complexity and sophistication of these respective measures themselves increase.

Thermal effects on cognition: a new quantitative synthesis

There is little doubt that increases in thermal load beyond the thermo-neutral state prove progressively stressful to all living organisms. Increasing temperatures across the globe represent in some locales, and especially for outdoors workers, a significant source of such chronic load increase. However, increases in thermal load affect cognition as well as physical work activities. Such human cognition has perennially been viewed as the primary conduit through which to solve many of the iatrogenic challenges we now face. Yet, thermal stress degrades the power to think. Here, we advance and refine the isothermal description of such cognitive decrements, founded upon a synthesis of extant empirical evidence. We report a series of mathematical functions which describe task-specific patterns of performance deterioration, linking such degrees of decrement to the time/temperature conditions in which they occur. Further, we provide a simple, free software tool to support such calculations so that adverse thermal loads can be monitored, assessed and (where possible) mitigated to preserve healthy cognitive functioning.

Measuring Resilience

OBJECTIVE

As human factors and ergonomics (HF/E) moves to embrace a greater systems perspective concerning human-machine technologies, new and emergent properties, such as resilience, have arisen. Our objective here is to promote discussion as to how to measure this latter, complex phenomenon.

BACKGROUND

Resilience is now a much-referenced goal for technology and work system design. It subsumes the new movement of resilience engineering. As part of a broader systems approach to HF/E, this concept requires both a definitive specification and an associated measurement methodology. Such an effort epitomizes our present work.

METHOD

Using rational analytic and synthetic methods, we offer an approach to the measurement of resilience capacity.

RESULTS

We explicate how our proposed approach can be employed to compare resilience across multiple systems and domains, and emphasize avenues for its future development and validation.

CONCLUSION

Emerging concerns for the promise and potential of resilience and associated concepts, such as adaptability, are highlighted. Arguments skeptical of these emerging dimensions must be met with quantitative answers; we advance one approach here.

APPLICATION

Robust and validated measures of resilience will enable coherent and rational discussions of complex emergent properties in macrocognitive system science.

State-of-science: situation awareness in individuals, teams and systems

Our review addresses one of the most used, but debated, topics in Ergonomics: Situation Awareness (SA). We examine and elaborate upon key SA models. These models are divided into individual SA, team SA and systems SA categories. Despite, or perhaps because of, the debates surrounding SA it remains an enduring theme for research and practice in the domain of Ergonomics, now for over two decades. A contingent approach, which seeks to match different models of SA to different types of ergonomics problem, enables the differences between positions to be revealed and reconciled, and the practitioner guided towards optimum methodological solutions. Practitioner Summary: Measuring SA in individuals, teams and systems has become a key objective in Ergonomics. One single approach to SA does not fit all problems encountered. This review shows the importance of considering all three types of models and achieving a match between them and the problem at hand.

Imposing limits on autonomous systems

Our present era is witnessing the genesis of a sea-change in the way that advanced technologies operate. Amongst this burgeoning wave of untrammelled automation there is now beginning to arise a cadre of ever-more independent, autonomous systems. The degree of interaction between these latter systems with any form of human controller is becoming progressively more diminished and remote; and this perhaps necessarily so. Here, I advocate for human-centred and human favouring constraints to be designed, programmed, promulgated and imposed upon these nascent forms of independent entity. I am not sanguine about the collective response of modern society to this call. Nevertheless, the warning must be voiced and the issue debated, especially among those who most look to mediate between people and technology. Practitioner Summary: Practitioners are witnessing the penetration of progressively more independent technical orthotics into virtually all systems' operations. This work enjoins them to advocate for sentient, rational and mindful human-centred approaches towards such innovations. Practitioners need to place user-centred concerns above either the technical or the financial imperatives which motivate this line of progress.

Detection of error-related negativity in complex visual stimuli: a new neuroergonomic arrow in the practitioner's quiver

Brain processes responsible for the error-related negativity (ERN) evoked response potential (ERP) have historically been studied in highly controlled laboratory experiments through presentation of simple visual stimuli. The present work describes the first time the ERN has been evoked and successfully detected in visual search of complex stimuli. A letter flanker task and a motorcycle conspicuity task were presented to participants during electroencephalographic (EEG) recording. Direct visual inspection and subsequent statistical analysis of the resultant time-locked ERP data clearly indicated that the ERN was detectable in both groups. Further, the ERN pattern did not differ between groups. Such results show that the ERN can be successfully elicited and detected in visual search of complex static images, opening the door to applied neuroergonomic use. Harnessing the brain's error detection system presents significant opportunities and complex challenges, and implication of such are discussed in the context of human-machine systems. Practitioner Summary: For the first time, error-related negativity (ERN) has been successfully elicited and detected in a visually complex applied search task. Brain-process-based error detection in human-machine systems presents unique challenges, but promises broad neuroergonomic applications.

Design of instructions for evacuating disabled adults

We investigated how the design of instructions can affect performance in preparing emergency stair travel devices for the evacuation of disable individuals. We had three hypotheses: 1) Design of instructions would account for a significant portion of explained performance variance, 2) Improvements in design of instructions would reduce time on task across device type and age group, and 3) There would be a performance decrement for older adults compared to younger adults based on the slowing of older adult information processing abilities. Results showed that design of instructions does indeed account for a large portion of explained variance in the operation of emergency stair travel devices, and that improvements in design of instructions can reduce time on task across device type and age group. However, encouragingly for real-world operations, results did not indicate any significant differences between older versus younger adults. We look to explore ways that individuals with disabilities can exploit these insights to enhance the performance of emergency stair travel devices for use.

The Human Factors of Cyber Network Defense

Technology’s role in the fight against malicious cyber-attacks is critical to the increasingly networked world of today. Yet, technology does not exist in isolation: the human factor is an aspect of cyber-defense operations with increasingly recognized importance. Thus, the human factors community has a unique responsibility to help create and validate cyber defense systems according to basic principles and design philosophy. Concurrently, the collective science must advance. These goals are not mutually exclusive pursuits: therefore, toward both these ends, this research provides cyber-cognitive links between cyber defense challenges and major human factors and ergonomics (HFE) research areas that offer solutions and instructive paths forward. In each area, there exist cyber research opportunities and realms of core HFE science for exploration. We raise the cyber defense domain up to the HFE community at-large as a sprawling area for scientific discovery and contribution.

Cognitive Change in Special Forces Personnel following Stressful Survival Training

Understanding the deterioration in cognitive functioning produced by stress continues to gain in importance due to the increasing demands imposed by technologically sophisticated systems. Although the general deleterious effects of stress are well established, the relative sensitivity of different cognitive functions to stress and the pattern of cognitive recovery with rest have not been fully distinguished. In this paper, we examined the cognitive performance of Special Forces soldiers immediately prior to and immediately following one week of Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) School training at Ft. Bragg, NC. Post-stress cognitive performance was characterized by significantly increased response time with minimal change in response accuracy. While response time increased for all tasks, memory appears to be most sensitive to stress. Performance returned to pre-stress levels the next morning following one night of sleep. The tasks affected most in the current study differed from changes which follow primarily upon physical stress, implying that the effects of combined psychological and physical stress on cognitive performance differ substantively from the effects of physical demand alone.

Individual Differences Related to Shooting Performance, in a Police Night-Training Shooting Exercise

Increased understanding of the stress and performance effects of gun range drills with police officers is of importance for law enforcement trainers. Seventy-one police officers participated in routine night shooting drills over a two week period as part of regular training regimen. This paper examines the effects of two shooting range tasks on police officer's time perception, individual differences, and shooting performance. Theoretical considerations led to the hypothesis that performance changes under stress may be related to distortions in the perception of time. However, the results of this study do not provide strong evidence for nomothetic effects of time distortion. Rather, it is more likely a function of individual differences. Future studies will examine potential individual differences variables that influence the relation between time distortion under stress and task performance.

Pilot Actions during Traffic Situations in a Free-Flight Airspace Structure

One facet of the proposed restructuring of the National Airspace System currently generating much interest is called ‘Free Flight’. At the heart of the Free Flight system is an increased flexibility in pilot decision making and responsibility for the definition and maintenance of separation, of preferred routes and speeds, and the conduct of maneuvers in response to potential conflicts and other emergencies in the airspace. Here, we describe a simulation experiment where fifteen commercial pilots were presented with traffic conflict situations in the en route environment. Within the scenarios we manipulated density, type of conflict, and relative bearing of conflict aircraft. Pilots were required to navigate a simulated 757 aircraft to destination airport, avoiding all possible traffic conflicts. Their ability to maintain separation was the principle dependent measure. Results indicated that density and bearing did not appear to have any substantive effect on pilot response. However, overtaking conflicts produced a higher frequency of operational errors than crossing or converging conflicts. Further analysis of individual pilot responses revealed different strategies. Analysis of individual overtaking scenarios revealed patterns of pilot action associated with efficient and often creative conflict resolutions. An example of an inefficient conflict resolution was also identified.

Age and the Elderly Internal Clock: Further Evidence for a Fundamentally Slowed CNS

Earlier studies have found little or no effect for age on the estimation of time. These results may reflect a true independence, or they may be an artifact of a subvocal counting strategy or an automatic and unconscious recalibration process by the elderly that adjusts for a slowed internal clock. These alternatives were examined by requiring subjects to estimate a prescribed time interval either alone or while also engaged in a resource demanding secondary task. The secondary task was assumed to prevent or inhibit the use of a counting strategy and any such recalibration processes from occurring. Thirty-two subjects, consisting of 16 young (mean age = 25 yrs) and 16 old (mean age = 71 yrs) individuals, performed a time estimation task both alone (unfilled interval production, the single-task condition) and while simultaneously counting backwards by threes from a number between 50 and 100 (filled interval production, the dual-task condition). Results indicated that while no age differences existed in interval production during the single-task condition, the older adults significantly overestimated the 10–sec interval during the dual-task condition, compared to the younger subjects. These findings are interpreted in terms of a slowed internal clock in the elderly. Such a slowing of the internal clock may explain a significant portion of the age-related variance in speed of behavior.

Factors Influencing Drivers' Left Turn Decisions

An experiment is reported which examined drivers' responses in turning left across a line of traffic as presented in a closed-loop, interactive, fixed-base driving simulator. Drivers were located near an intersection and instructed to turn left across a stream of on-coming traffic when they felt that it was safe for them to do so. The on-coming stream of traffic was varied in terms of the physical parameters of approach velocity, inter-vehicle time interval, and vehicle type. Specifically, seven velocities (10–70 mph) were crossed with seven gap sizes (3–9 sec) to yield forty-nine within-subject conditions for each of four, between-subject, vehicle types; motorcycle, compact car, large car, and delivery truck. There were ten subjects per vehicle type, giving forty total participants in the experiment. Results indicated differential acceptance of gap and velocity combinations depending upon the type of approaching vehicle. Collisions tended to occur along the boundaries where driver's decisions to reject or accept turns were ambivalent. They also occurred with greater frequency at higher velocity approach rates. Turn decisions were not dependent upon a single physical parameter such as vehicle velocity or inter-vehicle distance, although gap-size generated an arguable influence. Rather, left turn decisions appeared to result from the complex interplay of rate-of-change perceptual variables such as “time-to-contact” and the perceived characteristics of the vehicles themselves. Implications of the results are discussed with respect to the perception of vehicles and turn safety at roadway intersections.

Contrasting Driver Behavior during Turns and Straight Driving

In automobile-motorcycle collisions, one particular configuration clearly stands out above all others This dominant case sees the automobile driver turn left across the right-of-way of the on-coming motorcyclist. Our attempts to understand this particular accident have focused upon the actions of the driver. In the results of the experiment reported here, it is clear that turning involves a higher probability of structural interference to visual information processing and increase in mental load compared to straight driving. These effects are implicated in increased detection failure. The outcome of detection failure is radically different for left versus right-turns. In the former case, a turn is made across the face of oncoming traffic compared to the latter, more benign condition where no traffic conflict is liable to be experienced. The implications of these findings for enhancing motorcycle conspicuity are examined.

The stress and workload of virtual reality training: the effects of presence, immersion and flow

The present investigation evaluated the effects of virtual reality (VR) training on the performance, perceived workload and stress response to a live training exercise in a sample of Soldiers. We also examined the relationship between the perceptions of that same VR as measured by engagement, immersion, presence, flow, perceived utility and ease of use with the performance, workload and stress reported on the live training task. To a degree, these latter relationships were moderated by task performance, as measured by binary (Go/No-Go) ratings. Participants who reported positive VR experiences also tended to experience lower stress and lower workload when performing the live version of the task. Thus, VR training regimens may be efficacious for mitigating the stress and workload associated with criterion tasks, thereby reducing the ultimate likelihood of real-world performance failure. Practitioner Summary: VR provides opportunities for training in artificial worlds comprised of highly realistic features. Our virtual room clearing scenario facilitated the integration of Training and Readiness objectives and satisfied training doctrine obligations in a compelling engaging experience for both novice and experienced trainees.

The Tale of a Two-Faced Tiger

By recognizing the commonalities across apparently dissimilar accident types, designers can help reduce their frequency and impact.

A Meta-Analysis of Factors Influencing the Development of Trust in Automation: Implications for Understanding Autonomy in Future Systems

OBJECTIVE

We used meta-analysis to assess research concerning human trust in automation to understand the foundation upon which future autonomous systems can be built.

BACKGROUND

Trust is increasingly important in the growing need for synergistic human-machine teaming. Thus, we expand on our previous meta-analytic foundation in the field of human-robot interaction to include all of automation interaction.

METHOD

We used meta-analysis to assess trust in automation. Thirty studies provided 164 pairwise effect sizes, and 16 studies provided 63 correlational effect sizes.

RESULTS

The overall effect size of all factors on trust development was ḡ = +0.48, and the correlational effect was [Formula: see text]  = +0.34, each of which represented medium effects. Moderator effects were observed for the human-related (ḡ  = +0.49; [Formula: see text] = +0.16) and automation-related (ḡ = +0.53; [Formula: see text] = +0.41) factors. Moderator effects specific to environmental factors proved insufficient in number to calculate at this time.

CONCLUSION

Findings provide a quantitative representation of factors influencing the development of trust in automation as well as identify additional areas of needed empirical research.

APPLICATION

This work has important implications to the enhancement of current and future human-automation interaction, especially in high-risk or extreme performance environments.