The physiology, pharmacology, and trophic effectiveness of synapses formed by autonomic preganglionic nerves on frog skeletal muscle

1. Frog sartorius muscles, newly denervated and transplanted to the lymph sac of the back, are reinnervated by implanted cholinergic nerves (spinal somatic motor nerves or the preganglionic sympathetic splanchnic nerve), but not by nerves). 2. Foreign somatic motor nerves (s.m.n.s) form synapses that resemble normal sartorius neuromuscular junctions electrophysiologically. 3. Axons of the sympathetic preganglionic splanchnic nerve (s.p.n.) grow throughout the muscle, but only a small percentage of fibres form synapses. Most e.p.p.s are of low quantal content, generally subthreshold. Long onset latencies and multiple post-synaptic responses indicate that innervation is multiple, multi-terminal, and by unmyelinated axons. 4. Spontaneous miniature e.p.p.s at splanchnic junctions occur at an average rate under 0.1/sec. Their average amplitude and time course are about the same as for control muscles, but the variability of amplitudes is greater than for control muscles. 5. The amount of facilitation shown by s.p.n.-evoked e.p.p.s is the same as by s.m.n. e.p.p.s, but the time course is almost twice as long. 6. S.p.n.-reinnervated fibres show dramatic post-tetanic potentiation preceded by depression, following as few as 20--50 stimuli. 7. As judged by standard physiological and histochemical criteria, AChEsterase is absent at s.p.n. junctions. 8. The pharmacological responses of the s.p.n. junctions are similar to those of normal or foreign s.m.n. innervated neuromuscular junctions in their sensitivity to the cholinergic blocking agents D-tubocurarine and hexamethonium. 9 The s.p.n. is capable of restricting ACh sensitivity to the sites of nerve contacts, although this restriction occurs more slowly and less completely than with s.m.n. reinnervation. The loss of extrajunctional ACh sensitivity can be correlated with effectiveness of innervation; but significant restriction occurs even in s.p.n. reinnervated fibres that probably never contract to nerve stimulation.

Neural control of skeletal muscle cholinesterase: a study using organ-cultured rat muscle

1. It has been proposed that the influence of innervation on the cholinesterase activity (ChE) of skeletal muscle and on end-plate ChE in particular is mediated by trophic substance(s) moved by axonal transport and released from nerve. We have tested this hypothesis using rat extensor digitorum longus (e.d.l.) and diaphragm muscles denervated in vitro for several days and then maintained in organ culture to assay putative trophic substance(s). 2. The cholinesterase activity (ChE) of rat extensor digitorum longus (e.d.l.) muscles decreased dramatically after 5 days of denervation in vivo as previously reported. The ChE of rat e.d.l. muscles denervated in vivo for 3 days and then maintained in organ culture for 2 days was essentially identical to that of muscles denervated 5 days in vivo. 3. The ChE OF E.D.L. MUSCLES DENERVATED IN VIVO FOR 3 DAYS AND THEN MAINTAINED FOR 2 DAYS IN CULTURE MEDIUM SUPPLEMENTED WITH SCIATIC NERVE OR INNERVATED MUSCLE EXTRACT WAS SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF MUSCLES DENERVATED IN VIVO FOR 5 DAYS OR DENERVATED IN VIVO FOR 3 DAYS AND THEN CULTURED FOR 2 DAYS IN CULTURE MEDIUM ALONE. Supplementing the culture medium with brain or spinal cord extract also significantly increased the ChE of organ-cultured e.d.l. muscles. 4. Supplementing the culture medium with liver or spleen extract or with the extract of muscle denervated for 3--7 days in vivo before extraction did not increase the ChE or organ-cultured e.d.l. muscles. 5. The effect of muscle extract on the ChE of organ-cultured e.d.l. muscles was dose dependent and occurred gradually reaching a maximum after approximately 24 h of culture. 6. Substance(s) which increased the ChE of organ-cultured e.d.l. muscles were found to accumulate in transected sciatic nerve in the region just proximal to the site of transection where substances moved by axonal transport are known to accumulate. 7. Media conditioned with neurally stimulated e.d.l. or diaphragm muscles caused a substantial and highly significant increase in the ChE of e.d.l. or diaphragm muscles denervated in vivo and then maintained in organ culture. Media conditioned in the same way with unstimulated muscles did not increase the ChE OF ORGAN-CULTURED MUSCLES. 8. The active substance(s) released by neural stimulation continued to be released when muscle contraction was blocked by adding D-tubocurarine to the medium during conditioning but the release of these substance(s) was significantly reduced when magnesium (10mM) was added to the medium during conditioning. 9 The substance(s) released by neural stimulation selectively increased ChE in the end-plate region. In diaphragm segments denervated in vivo and then maintained in medium conditioned with neurally stimulated muscle, there was a 102% increase in end-plate ChE but no detectable increase in background ChE. 10...

On the role of junctional cholinesterase in determining the time course of the end-plate current

1. The effect of membrane potential on the half-time (t1/2) of the falling phase of the end-plate current was studied both in the absence and the presence of anticholinesterase. 2. In absence of anticholinesterase the relation between log t1/2 and membrane potential was linear at negative, and not linear at positive levels of membrane potential. This relation was not affected by the quantity of the released transmitter. 3. In presence of an irreversible anticholinesterase the relation between log t1/2 and membrane potential was shifted towards higher values of log t1/2. This shift could be counteracted by decreasing the quantity of the released transmitter. 4. It is concluded that in presence of anticholinesterase the decay of the end-plate current is slowed down because in this experimental condition the elimination of transmitter from the synaptic cleft is slowed down. 5. These observations were made in muscles bathed in Tris-HCl buffered Ringer solution. If a phosphate buffered Ringer solution was used, the relation between log t1/2 and membrane potential was linear throughout the range of membrane potentials studied. The reason why different buffers give different results is not clear and should be further studied.

Synaptic transmission between rat spinal cord explants and dissociated superior cervical ganglion neurons in tissue culture

Physiological properties of the synapses formed between explants of spinal cord and dissociated autonomic ganglion neurons in tissue culture were studied using intracellular and extracellular stimulation and recording techniques (as well as iontophoresis) with a culture perfusion system allowing continuous microscopic observation during repeated changes of the bathing medium. The principal neurons of the superior cervical ganglion (SCGN) were dissociated from perinatal rats and the spinal cord explants were obtained from 15-day rat fetuses; these were allowed to mature for 3-10 weeks in co-culture. Recordings from over 1000 SCGN established that: (a) spontaneous small depolarizations and action potentials occurred in 20% of the SCGN studied, (b) the EPSPs observed in SCGN after spinal cord stimulation were sensitive to decreased Ca2+ and increased Mg2+, as well as to D-tubocurare, hexamethonium and mecamylamine, but not to atropine (at 10(-6) M concentration) or to the alpha-adrenergic blocking agents phentolamine or phenoxybenzamine; no potentiation of the EPSPs was seen with neostigmate or eserine, (c) acetylcholine directly applied to the SCGN was seen to mimic the responses seen after spinal cord stimulation; tetrodotoxin blocked both direct and iontophoretically fired action potentials, with only a suprathreshold acetylcholine potential remaining. These synapses were not sensitive to alpha-bungarotoxin. It is concluded that the synapses formed by spinal cord neurites on principal SCGN in tissue culture are nicotinic cholinergic, and that the evoked EPSPs recorded in this study are thus similar to the orthodromic fast EPSPs observed in vivo. No slow synaptic responses were observed and no demonstrable effects were noted that could be attributed to adrenergic transmission.

The effects of physostigmine on synaptic transmission in the inferior mesenteric ganglion of guinea-pigs

1. Synaptic potentials were recorded with intracellular electrodes from cells in the inferior mesenteric ganglion of the guinea-pig.2. Half-widths of the synaptic potentials recorded fell into two groups: type L cells had long synaptic potentials (11.6-15.2 msec) and low thresholds (14.6 mV mean), type S cells had short synaptic potentials (6.1-9.3 msec) and high thresholds (29.9 mV mean).3. Physostigmine (1.2 x 10(-6)M) caused a significant increase in the half-width of both types of synaptic potential.4. Physostigmine caused a significant increase in the half-width of spontaneous synaptic potentials and an increase in their amplitude.5. Repetitive preganglionic stimulation, in the presence of physostigmine, led to a marked and prolonged depolarization in all cells. In most cells repetitive spontaneous firing of action potentials was then observed. This effect was blocked by atropine (1.4 x 10(-7)M).6. The effect of atropine on the half-width in a physostigmine-treated cell was inconsistent: although synaptic potentials in some cells were slightly shortened their half-widths were always greater than the control.7. It is concluded that cholinesterase plays a role in limiting the time course of the synaptic potential, by limiting the duration of action of acetylcholine.

Cytochemical studies of protein transport in the nervous system

The transport of materials within the nervous system has received much attention in recent years. Considerable information has accumulated concerning such subjects as the exchange of substances between the circulation and nervous tissue, the passage down axons of molecules and organelles originating in perikarya and the release and fate of neurotransmitters and neurosecretory agents at synapses and other neuron endings (see, for example, Wolstenholme & Porter 1968; Barondes 1969). Many investigations are underway on modulations of transport during nerve growth and regeneration and in tissue responding to injury or to other experimental alterations. However, numerous gaps remain. Of central importance to future analysis of intraneuronal transport will be the determination of details of the routes and mechanisms by which various components synthesized in the perikaryon become distributed throughout the cell. It is becoming increasingly clear that different components move along axons at quite different rates (see, for example, McEwen & Grafstein 1968). This heterogeneity may reflect the existence of a variety of intraaxonal transport pathways. Important clues derive from such work as the studies on microtubules reported by D. S. Smith in the present proceedings but much remains to be learned about possible compartmentalization of movement within axons. Similarly, the organization of perikarya must be further investigated. Neurons possess abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum, many free ribosomes, a well-developed Golgi apparatus and other features consonant with their intensive metabolic activity. Remarkably little is known, however, about most of the molecules synthesized within perikarya and about the division of labour among the organelles of the perikaryal cytoplasm.