Analysis of the putative remains of a European patron saint--St. Birgitta

Saint Birgitta (Saint Bridget of Sweden) lived between 1303 and 1373 and was designated one of Europe's six patron saints by the Pope in 1999. According to legend, the skulls of St. Birgitta and her daughter Katarina are maintained in a relic shrine in Vadstena abbey, mid Sweden. The origin of the two skulls was assessed first by analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to confirm a maternal relationship. The results of this analysis displayed several differences between the two individuals, thus supporting an interpretation of the two skulls not being individuals that are maternally related. Because the efficiency of PCR amplification and quantity of DNA suggested a different amount of degradation and possibly a very different age for each of the skulls, an orthogonal procedure, radiocarbon dating, was performed. The radiocarbon dating results suggest an age difference of at least 200 years and neither of the dating results coincides with the period St. Birgitta or her daughter Katarina lived. The relic, thought to originate from St. Birgitta, has an age corresponding to the 13^th century (1215–1270 cal AD, 2σ confidence), which is older than expected. Thus, the two different analyses are consistent in questioning the authenticity of either of the human skulls maintained in the Vadstena relic shrine being that of St. Birgitta. Of course there are limitations when interpreting the data of any ancient biological materials and these must be considered for a final decision on the authenticity of the remains.

[Therapy or torture: a treatment of gout misunderstood by Gregory of Tours]

Historiarum libri decem, a work written by St. Gregory, the bishop of Tours, is an important contemporary source for the study of the Merovingian times. In Book V 42 Gregory reports the story of Maurilio, the bishop of Cahors in the Southern Gaul, who was strongly suffering from gout. Maurilio treated the illness himself applying a hot iron to his foot and shank. This therapy is already mentioned in the Corpus Hippocraticum. It seems, however, that cauterization was not known to St. Gregory of Tours as a medical treatment of this particular illness. He simply saw in it a sanctifying practice in the sense of penitential mortification. Indeed, for Gregory this interpretation is an important part of his literary aim, as Maurilio is for him a brilliant example of a minister of the Church. Although Maurilio is well-known for his piety, knowledge, and uprightness in diocesan dealings, he voluntarily, as Gregory thinks, submits to ascetic self-castigation.

[Magical and religious healing in Byzantium]

Religious and magical ways of healing have been known and practiced since the very beginning of human history. In the present article, the Byzantine philosophical, cultural, historical and "methodological" aspects of this way of healing are discussed. The article outlines the development of magic healing in Byzantium from the 4th to the 15th century. During this period magical therapy included the cult of patron saints--listed by the author--and pleading for divine intervention as well. The activity of "anargyroi" and the use of magical objects and amulets is also discussed in detail. Exorcism was also a part of religious therapy both against psychical and somatical diseases. In early Christianity, and especially in Byzantium the devil or other demons were also supposed to cause various somatical or psychical illnesses by "intrusion" or "internalisation," i.e. by possession or obsession of their victims.

The transplant of the white man's leg: a novel representation of Cosma and Damians miracle

The history of the miracle performed by the patron saints of medicine Cosma and Damian is well known: physicians and historians have dealt with this subject on many occasions, giving rise to a large range of literature. The Author brings up the problem again, on the ground of a novel Spanish painting which has never previously been taken into consideration from a medical point of view but which reserves some surprises and offers a possible psychological consideration of the matter.

[Saints and diseases: an onomastic relationship]

Praying saints to obtain soul salvation and body recovering was a common practice in medieval time. The history of certain diseases has been strictly related with devotion and pilgrimages. The current nomenclature of particular illnesses is an inheritance of that relationship. Epidemics of S. Anthony's fire, caused by eating contaminated rye bread, and S. Vitus' dance, maybe a kind of chorea, occurred frequently in the Middle Age. The durability of these onomastic associations and the survival of patronage on these sicknesses had a long evolution along the centuries, as shown by a multitude of medieval sources.

Historical analysis of Zurbarán's Saint Apollonia

Francisco de Zurbarán (1598-1644), the Spanish Baroque painter of dramatic religious scenes and powerful portraits, painted a number of female saints, including Apollonia. His full-length portrait of Saint Apollonia, patron saint of those suffering from dental ailments, is in the collection of the Louvre Museum, and reflects the Counter-Reformation ideals of 17th-century Seville.

The doctor was surprised; or, how to diagnose a miracle

A survey of more than six hundred miracle records in the canonization files of the Vatican Secret Archives from the seventeenth century to the twentieth century reveals that more than 95 percent are healings from illness. The history of the canonization process is summarized to explain the sources. The diagnoses amenable to miracle cure change through time to reflect current medical preoccupations and methods. Physician testimony has always been crucial to the investigation of miracles for declaring the hopeless prognosis and the surprise at recovery. From this analysis, medicine and religion emerge as parallel semiotic endeavors, using their canons of wisdom and careful observation to derive meaning in suffering.

Marcelian charm in nursing practice: the unity of agape and eros as the foundation of an ethic of care

In the nursing literature, a number of qualities are associated with loving care. Reference is made to, among other things, humility, attentiveness, responsibility and duty, compassion, and tenderness. The author attempts to show that charm, in the Marcelian sense, also plays a central role. It is argued that the moral foundation of charm is a unity of agape and eros. An impartial giving of the self for others is clearly of fundamental importance in an ethic of care. Including charm in the discussion points to the fact that eros also plays a crucial role. Eros produces a passion for people and for life. It is a physical and spiritual energy that animates a person in all facets of her life, including her caring work.

[Rochus, patron saint of physicians and hospitals--a teledermatologic quiz]

The painting "St. Rochus with an angel" by Quinten Massys in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich was utilized for a teledermatological quiz. First, only a detail of the plague bubo on the thigh was sent electronically to all physicians in our department. The answers were correct descriptions, but the interpretations quite heterogeneous. In a second set, the full painting together with the hint- Pinakothek - was given. Now the number of descriptively correct diagnoses was high; one resident knew the name of the featured individual and his diagnosis. This example demonstrates one problem with teledermatology - when viewing a clinical picture, relevant additional information is frequently essential in order to make a correct diagnosis. In addition, this presentation of saint physicians and hospitals, the holy Rochus, better known to those who are under his protection.

[Saints and illnesses in faith and paleopathological evidences]

The exhumation of the natural mummies of Beata Margherita di Savoia (1390-1464) and of St. Caterina Fieschi Adorno (1447-1510) has not been followed by autopsy or histological exams. The aim has been to preserve the integrity of the saints' corpses. We have thus proceeded to a confrontation between data gathered from chronicles and hagiographies and radiological exams and macroscopic observations. The article aims at establishing a model for a multidisciplinar approach to paleopathological research, integrating historical research and medical knowledge.

Closeness and distance in the nurse-patient relation. The relevance of Edith Stein's concept of empathy

This paper emanates from the concept of empathy as understood by the German philosopher Edith Stein. It begins by highlighting different interpretations of empathy. According to the German philosopher Martin Buber, empathy cannot be achieved as an act of will. In contrast, the psychologist Carl Rogers believes that empathy is identical with dialogue and is the outcome of a cognitive act of active listening. The empathy concept of Edith Stein, philosopher and follower of Edmund Husserl's phenomenology, goes beyond these conflicting views and offers a more complex interpretation, with relevance for both healthcare and nursing education. When studying Stein's three-level model of empathy, a field of tension between perspectives of closeness and distance becomes apparent. The paper concludes by suggesting Stein's model of empathy as a strategy to overcome the tension and meet the demands of empathy.

[Paleopathology of cancers]

Paleopathology is useful for our knowledge of the natural history of cancer. However, the interpretation of neoplasms (retrospective diagnosis and past epidemiology) is one of the more interesting and difficult aspects of paleopathology. Paleopathology of cancer may be also useful for pathography and, sometimes, demonstrates a linkage between history and legend. The epidermoid cyst diagnosed on the vault of Saint Aubert, the founder of the Mont Saint Michel (France), supplies a such example.

Medical miracles and the longue durée

The hematologist-historian author became interested in the nature 'medical miracles', following a request to write a report on a set of bone marrows that was sent to the Vatican as a possible miracle cure in a cause for canonization. She questioned the prevalence of medical miracles, their structure, and relationship to other 'official' miracles that are recognized by the Church. Evidence was drawn from a variety of sources: oral testimony of pilgrims at feast day celebrations, ex voto paintings, and 160 miracle files in 67 canonization records of the Vatican Archives. Some changes can be detected through time, but the results also testify to remarkable longue durée in the healing experience: the patterns of suffering and despair, the gestures of pleading, the presence of beds and dreams, the astonishment of the caregivers, and above all the simultaneous recourse to medicine and religion both.

Did St Birgitta suffer from epilepsy?

Several famous religious personalities have been discussed as possibly having had epilepsy. Partial epileptic fits can be accompanied by religious experiences. The Swedish St Birgitta of Vadstena is focused on from this perspective as the exterior of the skull thought to belong to her has a prominent tuberculum with a corresponding interior indentation possibly indicating the previous existence of a meningioma, a well known cause of epilepsy. This article scrutinises arguments for and against the possibility of epileptic features in the revelations of the saint, as well as in her life story.

The Assisi Chartula by the hand of Saint Francis: non-destructive characterization by spectroscopic spectrometric and optical methods

Just two examples of writings by the hand of S. Francesco are known to exist: a letter to Brother Leone, kept in the archives of Spoleto cathedral and the Chartula, displayed in the Hall of Reliquaries at Assisi's Sacro Convento. For the first time in its history the Chartula has undergone a series of non-destructive analyses, with the object of establishing its current state of conservation and the types of inks used in its making. A new display case has been designed and built for the improved conservation of this precious document. The new housing substitutes an ancient case, which was located inside the original reliquary.

St. Francis came at dawn--the miraculous recovery of a hemiplegic monk in the Middle Ages

We present the English translation of a remarkable case report from the 13th century. A collection of miracles ascribed to St. Francis contains the story of a young monk suddenly afflicted by a neurological disorder characterized by hemiplegia, speech problems and confusion. St. Francis' appearance led to complete recovery. From a theological and literary point of view, the text includes many allusions to the miracles performed by Jesus and to pagan traditions from Asclepius to Ovid. Retrospective neurological diagnoses range from a prolonged ischemic neurological deficit (PRIND) to psychogenesis. This case history is a rare example of faith healing in its contemporary context.