Progress in Fixed-Photon-Energy Time-Efficient Double Imaging Photoelectron/Photoion Coincidence Measurements in Quantitative Flame Analysis

Photoelectron photoion coincidence (PEPICO) spectroscopy as an attractive new technique for combustion analysis was used in a fixed-photon-energy configuration to provide quantitative species profiles in laminar premixed flames. While such measurements are conventionally performed with molecular-beam mass spectrometry (MBMS) using electron ionization (EI) or vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photoionization (PI) with synchrotron radiation, these techniques have some limitations. The possibility to record photoelectron spectra (PES) simultaneously with photoionization data, providing fingerprint information for reliable species identification, presents a significant advantage of PEPICO spectroscopy especially in complex reactive mixtures. The multiplex approach presented here, enhanced by the imaging capabilities of the electron and ion detection in the so-called double-imaging PEPICO scheme (i2PEPICO), provides, in different experimental situations, an unprecedentedly detailed combustion analysis regarding both species identification and quantification. Problems and perspectives of the present fixed-photon-energy PEPICO approach will be discussed.

Determination of accurate electron chiral asymmetries in fenchone and camphor in the VUV range: sensitivity to isomerism and enantiomeric purity

Photoelectron circular dichroism is a chiroptical effect able to distinguish isomers and to determine accurately the enantiopurity of chiral compounds.

Double imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence sheds new light on the dissociation of energy-selected CH3Cl+ ions

The dissociation mechanisms of CH₃Cl⁺ have been probed to be state-specific and the umbrella mode of the CH₃⁺ fragments is assigned.

Vacuum upgrade and enhanced performances of the double imaging electron/ion coincidence end-station at the vacuum ultraviolet beamline DESIRS

We report here the recent upgrade of the SAPHIRS permanent photoionization end-station at the DESIRS vacuum ultraviolet beamline of synchrotron SOLEIL, whose performances have been enhanced by installing an additional double-skimmer differential chamber. The smaller molecular beam profile obtained at the interaction region has increased the mass resolution of the double imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence (i(2)PEPICO) spectrometer, DELICIOUS III, installed in the photoionization chamber of the SAPHIRS endstation, by a factor of two, to M/ΔM ∼ 1700 (FWHM). The electron kinetic energy resolution offered by the velocity map imaging (VMI) part of the spectrometer has been improved down to 2.8% (ΔE/E) as we show on the N2 photoionization case in the double skimmer configuration. As a representative example of the overall state-of-the-art i(2)PEPICO performances, experimental results of the dissociation of state-selected O2(+)(B(2)∑(g)(-), v(+) = 0-6) molecular ions performed at the fixed photon energy of hν = 21.1 eV are presented.

Photoelectron-photoion coincidence spectroscopy for multiplexed detection of intermediate species in a flame

Complex reactive processes in the gas phase often proceed via numerous reaction steps and intermediate species that must be identified and quantified to develop an understanding of the reaction pathways and establish suitable reaction mechanisms. Here, photoelectron-photoion coincidence (PEPICO) spectroscopy has been applied to analyse combustion intermediates present in a premixed fuel-rich (ϕ = 1.7) ethene-oxygen flame diluted with 25% argon, burning at a reduced pressure of 40 mbar. For the first time, multiplexing fixed-photon-energy PEPICO measurements were demonstrated in a chemically complex reactive system such as a flame in comparison with the scanning "threshold" TPEPICO approach used in recent pioneering combustion investigations. The technique presented here is capable of detecting and identifying multiple species by their cations' vibronic fingerprints, including radicals and pairs or triplets of isomers, from a single time-efficient measurement at a selected fixed photon energy. Vibrational structures for these species have been obtained in very good agreement with scanning-mode threshold photoelectron spectra taken under the same conditions. From such spectra, the temperature in the ionisation volume was determined. Exemplary analysis of species profiles and mole fraction ratios for isomers shows favourable agreement with results obtained by more common electron ionisation and photoionisation mass spectrometry experiments. It is expected that the multiplexing fixed-photon-energy PEPICO technique can contribute effectively to the analysis of chemical reactivity and kinetics in and beyond combustion.

Vibrationally resolved photoelectron spectroscopy of electronic excited states of DNA bases: application to the ã state of thymine cation

For fully understanding the light-molecule interaction dynamics at short time scales, recent theoretical and experimental studies proved the importance of accurate characterizations not only of the ground (D0) but also of the electronic excited states (e.g., D1) of molecules. While ground state investigations are currently straightforward, those of electronic excited states are not. Here, we characterized the à electronic state of ionic thymine (T(+)) DNA base using explicitly correlated coupled cluster ab initio methods and state-of-the-art synchrotron-based electron/ion coincidence techniques. The experimental spectrum is composed of rich and long vibrational progressions corresponding to the population of the low frequency modes of T(+)(Ã). This work challenges previous numerous works carried out on DNA bases using common synchrotron and VUV-based photoelectron spectroscopies. We provide hence a powerful theoretical and experimental framework to study the electronic structure of ionized DNA bases that could be generalized to other medium-sized biologically relevant systems.

Adiabatic ionization energies of the overlapped A2A1 and B2E electronic states in CH3Cl+/CH3F+ measured with double imaging electron/ion coincidence

The overlapped A²A₁ and B²E electronic states of CH₃Cl⁺ have been separated and their adiabatic ionization energies have been measured from an electron and ion kinetic energy correlation diagram based on their different dissociation dynamics.

Ionization photophysics and spectroscopy of cyanoacetylene

Photoionization of cyanoacetylene was studied using synchrotron radiation over the non-dissociative ionization excitation range 11-15.6 eV, with photoelectron-photoion coincidence techniques. The absolute ionization cross-section and spectroscopic aspects of the parent ion were recorded. The adiabatic ionization energy of cyanoacetylene was measured as 11.573 ± 0.010 eV. A detailed analysis of photoelectron spectra of HC3N involves new aspects and new assignments of the vibrational components to excitation of the A(2)Σ(+) and B(2)Π states of the cation. Some of the structured autoionization features observed in the 11.94 to 15.5 eV region of the total ion yield (TIY) spectrum were assigned to two Rydberg series converging to the B(2)Π state of HC3N(+). A number of the measured TIY features are suggested to be vibrational components of Rydberg series converging to the C(2)Σ(+) state of HC3N(+) at ≈17.6 eV and others to valence shell transitions of cyanoacetylene in the 11.6-15 eV region. The results of quantum chemical calculations of the cation electronic state geometries, vibrational frequencies and energies, as well as of the C-H dissociation potential energy profiles of the ground and electronic excited states of the ion, are compared with experimental observations. Ionization quantum yields are evaluated and discussed and the problem of adequate calibration of photoionization cross-sections is raised.

VUV photodynamics and chiral asymmetry in the photoionization of gas phase alanine enantiomers

The valence shell photoionization of the simplest proteinaceous chiral amino acid, alanine, is investigated over the vacuum ultraviolet region from its ionization threshold up to 18 eV. Tunable and variable polarization synchrotron radiation was coupled to a double imaging photoelectron/photoion coincidence (i(2)PEPICO) spectrometer to produce mass-selected threshold photoelectron spectra and derive the state-selected fragmentation channels. The photoelectron circular dichroism (PECD), an orbital-sensitive, conformer-dependent chiroptical effect, was also recorded at various photon energies and compared to continuum multiple scattering calculations. Two complementary vaporization methods-aerosol thermodesorption and a resistively heated sample oven coupled to an adiabatic expansion-were applied to promote pure enantiomers of alanine into the gas phase, yielding neutral alanine with different internal energy distributions. A comparison of the photoelectron spectroscopy, fragmentation, and dichroism measured for each of the vaporization methods was rationalized in terms of internal energy and conformer populations and supported by theoretical calculations. The analytical potential of the so-called PECD-PICO detection technique-where the electron spectroscopy and circular dichroism can be obtained as a function of mass and ion translational energy-is underlined and applied to characterize the origin of the various species found in the experimental mass spectra. Finally, the PECD findings are discussed within an astrochemical context, and possible implications regarding the origin of biomolecular asymmetry are identified.

Isotopically resolved photoelectron imaging unravels complex atomic autoionization dynamics by two-color resonant ionization

Angle-resolved electron spectroscopy in coincidence with high-resolution mass spectroscopy has been applied to study two-color resonant photoionization in atomic xenon. Separation of different isotopes enabled us to extract results for the electronic dynamics free from depolarization effects, which are generally introduced by the coupling of the electronic and nuclear angular momenta. The concerted experimental and theoretical analysis of the photoelectron angular distributions in the region of an autoionizing resonance emphasizes the strong sensitivity of the observed structures to the fine details of the treatment of the underlying dynamics.

Ionization photophysics and spectroscopy of dicyanoacetylene

Photoionization of dicyanoacetylene was studied using synchrotron radiation over the excitation range 8-25 eV, with photoelectron-photoion coincidence techniques. The absolute ionization cross-section and detailed spectroscopic aspects of the parent ion were recorded. The adiabatic ionization energy of dicyanoacetylene was measured as 11.80 ± 0.01 eV. A detailed analysis of the cation spectroscopy involves new aspects and new assignments of the vibrational components to excitation of the quasi-degenerate A(2)Πg, B(2)Σg(+) states as well as the C(2)Σu(+) and D(2)Πu states of the cation. Some of the structured autoionization features observed in the 12.4-15 eV region of the total ion yield spectrum were assigned to vibrational components of valence shell transitions and to two previously unknown Rydberg series converging to the D(2)Πu state of C4N2(+). The appearance energies of the fragment ions C4N(+), C3N(+), C4(+), C2N(+), and C2(+) were measured and their heats of formation were determined and compared with existing literature values. Thermochemical calculations of the appearance potentials of these and other weaker ions were used to infer aspects of dissociative ionization pathways.

DELICIOUS III: a multipurpose double imaging particle coincidence spectrometer for gas phase vacuum ultraviolet photodynamics studies

We present a versatile double imaging particle coincidence spectrometer operating in fully continuous mode, named DELICIOUS III, which combines a velocity map imaging device and a modified Wiley-McLaren time of flight momentum imaging analyzer for photoelectrons and photoions, respectively. The spectrometer is installed in a permanent endstation on the DESIRS vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) beamline at the French National Synchrotron Radiation Facility SOLEIL, and is dedicated to gas phase VUV spectroscopy, photoionization, and molecular dynamics studies. DELICIOUS III is capable of recording mass-selected threshold photoelectron photoion coincidence spectra with a sub-meV resolution, and the addition of a magnifying lens inside the electron drift tube provides a sizeable improvement of the electron threshold/ion mass resolution compromise. In fast electron mode the ultimate kinetic energy resolution has been measured at ΔE/E = 4%. The ion spectrometer offers a mass resolution--full separation of adjacent masses--of 250 amu for moderate extraction fields and the addition of an electrostatic lens in the second acceleration region allows measuring the full 3D velocity vector for a given mass with an ultimate energy resolution of ΔE/E = 15%, without sacrificing the mass resolution. Hence, photoelectron images are correlated both to the mass and to the ion kinetic energy and recoil direction, to access the electron spectroscopy of size-selected species, to study the photodissociation processes of state-selected cations in detail, or to measure in certain cases photoelectron angular distributions in the ion recoil frame. The performances of DELICIOUS III are explored through several examples including the photoionization of N2, NO, and CF3.

Vibrationally induced inversion of photoelectron forward-backward asymmetry in chiral molecule photoionization by circularly polarized light

Electron-nuclei coupling accompanying excitation and relaxation processes is a fascinating phenomenon in molecular dynamics. A striking and unexpected example of such coupling is presented here in the context of photoelectron circular dichroism measurements on randomly oriented, chiral methyloxirane molecules, unaffected by any continuum resonance. Here, we report that the forward-backward asymmetry in the electron angular distribution, with respect to the photon axis, which is associated with photoelectron circular dichroism can surprisingly reverse direction according to the ion vibrational mode excited. This vibrational dependence represents a clear breakdown of the usual Franck-Condon assumption, ascribed to the enhanced sensitivity of photoelectron circular dichroism (compared with other observables like cross-sections or the conventional anisotropy parameter-β) to the scattering phase off the chiral molecular potential, inducing a dependence on the nuclear geometry sampled in the photoionization process. Important consequences for the interpretation of such dichroism measurements within analytical contexts are discussed.

State-selected unimolecular decomposition of δ-valerolactam+ and δ-valerolactam2+ cations: theory and experiment

The near threshold photofragmentation pattern of δ-valerolactam(+) and δ-valerolactam(2)(+) has been recorded combining electron/ion coincidence techniques and vacuum ultraviolet synchrotron radiation. The experimental method yields the fragment intensity as a function of the internal energy deposited into the parent cation, up to 3.1 eV above the first ionization threshold. In parallel, ab initio studies on the δ-valerolactam(+) and δ-valerolactam(2)(+) cations and their ionic and neutral fragmentation products have been performed with the aim of determining the isomers of the ionic products observed experimentally as well as of their neutral counterparts. These computations were performed using the PBE0 exchange-correlation functional and the aug-cc-pVDZ basis set. We found good agreement between the calculated reaction enthalpies and experimental appearance energies of the ions. More generally, our experimental and theoretical results reveal that the fragmentation of the ionic species of interest leads to a multitude of neutral and ionic fragments, which may be formed after intramolecular isomerization and complex decomposition processes. Multistep reaction pathways are expected.

DESIRS: a state-of-the-art VUV beamline featuring high resolution and variable polarization for spectroscopy and dichroism at SOLEIL

DESIRS is a new undulator-based VUV beamline on the 2.75 GeV storage ring SOLEIL (France) optimized for gas-phase studies of molecular and electronic structures, reactivity and polarization-dependent photodynamics on model or actual systems encountered in the universe, atmosphere and biosphere. It is equipped with two dedicated endstations: a VUV Fourier-transform spectrometer (FTS) for ultra-high-resolution absorption spectroscopy (resolving power up to 10(6)) and an electron/ion imaging coincidence spectrometer. The photon characteristics necessary to fulfill its scientific mission are: high flux in the 5-40 eV range, high spectral purity, high resolution, and variable and well calibrated polarizations. The photon source is a 10 m-long pure electromagnetic variable-polarization undulator producing light from the very near UV up to 40 eV on the fundamental emission with tailored elliptical polarization allowing fully calibrated quasi-perfect horizontal, vertical and circular polarizations, as measured with an in situ VUV polarimeter with absolute polarization rates close to unity, to be obtained at the sample location. The optical design includes a beam waist allowing the implementation of a gas filter to suppress the undulator high harmonics. This harmonic-free radiation can be steered toward the FTS for absorption experiments, or go through a highly efficient pre-focusing optical system, based on a toroidal mirror and a reflective corrector plate similar to a Schmidt plate. The synchrotron radiation then enters a 6.65 m Eagle off-plane normal-incidence monochromator equipped with four gratings with different groove densities, from 200 to 4300 lines mm(-1), allowing the flux-to-resolution trade-off to be smoothly adjusted. The measured ultimate instrumental resolving powers are 124000 (174 µeV) around 21 eV and 250000 (54 µeV) around 13 eV, while the typical measured flux is in the 10(10)-10(11) photons s(-1) range in a 1/50000 bandwidth, and 10(12)-10(13) photons s(-1) in a 1/1000 bandwidth, which is very satisfactory although slightly below optical simulations. All of these features make DESIRS a state-of-the-art VUV beamline for spectroscopy and dichroism open to a broad scientific community.