Growth factor receptor expression varies among high-grade gliomas and normal brain: epidermal growth factor receptor has excellent properties for interstitial fusion protein therapy

Convection-enhanced delivery of fusion proteins is a novel therapeutic approach for patients with relapsed or refractory high-grade gliomas. Multiple different fusion proteins have been produced that target different receptors on brain tumor cells. The sensitivity of different gliomas to fusion proteins has been shown to depend in part on the expression of the target receptor. We undertook a comparative study of the presence of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), interleukin-13 receptor (IL13R), interleukin-4 receptor (IL4R), and transferrin receptor (TfR) determined by immunofluorescence microscopy among fresh frozen tumor samples from 38 patients with high-grade gliomas (glioblastoma multiforme or anaplastic astrocytoma). The frequency of high receptor expression was 32 of 38 (84%) for EGFR, 30 of 38 (79%) for IL13R, 25 of 38 (66%) for TfR, and 17 of 38 (45%) for IL4R. Reactivity of normal brain endothelium was observed for TfR, and reactivity of normal brain astrocytes was observed for IL4R. Because of cross-reactivity of interleukin-13 with the IL4R-IL13Ralpha1 receptor, we infer reactivity of interleukin-13 with normal astrocytes. In contrast, EGFR was not observed in normal brain. A number of patients (10 of 38 patients) showed unequal expression of EGFR and IL13R. Thus, some patients may benefit more from interstitial therapy with an EGFR-directed fusion protein than from therapy with an IL13R-directed fusion protein and vice versa. The safety profile may be improved with an agent directed to EGFR versus agents directed to TfR, IL4R, or IL13R. Design of clinical trials of fusion proteins in patients with brain tumors may be enhanced by inclusion of relevant receptor density measurements.

DNA damage and breast cancer risk

To evaluate whether deficient DNA repair contributes to elevated DNA damage and breast carcinogenesis, we used the comet assay (single-cell alkaline gel electrophoresis) to measure the levels of DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes from 70 breast cancer cases and 70 controls. DNA damage, measured as the comet tail moment, was not influenced by age, family history (FH), age at menarche, age at first birth or parity. The results showed that cancer cases had significantly higher DNA damage compared with controls; the comet tail moments (mean +/- SD) for cases and controls were: 10.78 +/- 3.63 and 6.86 +/- 2.76 (P < 0.001) for DNA damage at baseline (DB), 21.24 +/- 4.88 and 14.97 +/- 4.18 (P < 0.001) for DNA damage after exposure to 6 Gy of ionizing radiation (DIR), and 14.76 +/- 5.35 and 9.75 +/- 3.35 (P < 0.001) for DNA damage remaining after 10 min repair following exposure to 6 Gy of IR (DRP), respectively. Body mass index (BMI) affected DNA damage differently for cases and controls. Damage decreased with increasing BMI for controls, while damage increased with increasing BMI for cases. Above-median DNA damage was significantly associated with breast cancer risk; the age-adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 13.44 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 5.97-30.24] for DB, 13.65 (6.07-30.71) for DIR and 6.54 (3.11-13.79) for DRP, respectively. This association was stronger in women with above-median BMI. Our results, although based on a relatively small group of subjects, indicate that elevated DNA damage is significantly associated with breast cancer risk and warrant larger studies to further define the molecular mechanisms of DNA damage/repair in breast cancer susceptibility.

Analysis of G/A polymorphism in the androgen response element I of the PSA gene and its interactions with the androgen receptor polymorphisms

OBJECTIVES

To compare the in vitro functional activity of the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) androgen response element (ARE) I alleles alone or in combination with androgen receptor (AR) polymorphisms and to determine the association of ARE I alleles with serum PSA in men without clinical prostatic disease. Data are conflicting regarding the association of PSA promoter alleles with serum PSA in men.

METHODS

In vitro functional analyses of ARE I and AR polymorphisms were conducted by luciferase reporter assays in LNCaP and PC-3 cells. Associations among serum PSA, ARE I, and AR genotypes were determined by genotyping 109 white and 71 African-American men determined to be free of clinical prostatic disease.

RESULTS

We found no significant difference in the androgen responsiveness of the two alleles when cells were transfected with PSA promoter reporter constructs differing only in the ARE I single nucleotide polymorphism and treated with varying doses of androgen. The response to androgens of the ARE I alleles co-transfected with AR expression vectors of 9, 21, and 29 CAG repeat lengths were identical. No individual or combined effects of the ARE I genotype and the AR genotype on serum PSA were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that ARE I polymorphisms, alone or in combination with AR polymorphisms, have no functional effect on the activity of the PSA promoter in vitro and in vivo.

Experimental Sarcocystis hominis infection in a water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

A water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) was fed 5.0 x 10(5) Sarcocystis hominis sporocysts from a human volunteer who had ingested S. hominis cysts from naturally infected cattle. A necropsy was performed on the buffalo 119 days after inoculation, and a large number of microscopic sarcocysts (approximately 5,000/g) were found in skeletal muscles. Ultrastructurally, the sarcocyst wall from buffalo muscles has upright villar protrusions measuring about 5.6 x 0.8 microm with numerous microtubules that run from the base to the apex. Sarcocysts from this buffalo were infective to 2 human volunteers, confirming their identity as S. hominis. Therefore, we believe that buffaloes can act experimentally as the intermediate host for S. hominis.

Polymorphisms of XRCC1 and XRCC3 genes and susceptibility to breast cancer

Mammalian cells are constantly exposed to a wide variety of genotoxic agents from both endogenous and exogenous sources. Genetic variability in DNA repair may contribute to human cancer risk. We used a case-control study design (162 cases and 302 controls) to test the association between three amino acid substitution variants of DNA repair genes (XRCC1 Arg194Trp, XRCC1 Arg399Gln, and XRCC3 Thr241Met) and breast cancer susceptibility. We found a weak association between the XRCC1 194Trp allele and breast cancer risk (adjusted odds ratio (OR)=1.98; 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.85-4.63). We also found a potential gene-gene interaction between the XRCC1 194Trp allele and XRCC3 241Met allele and breast cancer risk (adjusted OR=8.74; 95% CI=1.13-67.53). Although larger studies are needed to validate the study results, our data suggest that amino acid substitution variants of XRCC1 and XRCC3 genes may contribute to breast cancer susceptibility.

Symposium overview: genetic polymorphisms in DNA repair and cancer risk

A symposium, Genetic Polymorphisms in DNA Repair and Cancer Risk, was presented at the 40th Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology, held in San Francisco, California, in March 2001. A brief report of the symposium was published (Kaiser, Science 292, 837-838, 2001). Molecular epidemiological studies have shown that polymorphic variants of genes involved in the metabolism and repair of carcinogens can act as cancer susceptibility genes. These variants of drug metabolic and DNA-repair enzymes either increase the activation of chemical carcinogens or decrease the cells' ability to detoxify/repair mutagenic damages. Although on an individual basis these variant alleles may only slightly change catalytic activity and increase cancer risk, their polymorphic frequency in the human population may contribute to a high proportion of cancer cases. Studies conducted over the past few years have identified variant alleles for a number of DNA-repair genes, some of which have been shown to change DNA-repair capacity. Identifying these genotypic alterations in DNA-repair enzymes and their association with cancer may help to elucidate the mechanisms of cancer etiology and to predict both disease risk and response to cancer therapy, since most antineoplastic treatments mediate their effects through DNA damage.

Germline mutations and sequence variants of the macrophage scavenger receptor 1 gene are associated with prostate cancer risk

Deletions on human chromosome 8p22-23 in prostate cancer cells and linkage studies in families affected with hereditary prostate cancer (HPC) have implicated this region in the development of prostate cancer. The macrophage scavenger receptor 1 gene (MSR1, also known as SR-A) is located at 8p22 and functions in several processes proposed to be relevant to prostate carcinogenesis. Here we report the results of genetic analyses that indicate that mutations in MSR1 may be associated with risk of prostate cancer. Among families affected with HPC, we identified six rare missense mutations and one nonsense mutation in MSR1. A family-based linkage and association test indicated that these mutations co-segregate with prostate cancer (P = 0.0007). In addition, among men of European descent, MSR1 mutations were detected in 4.4% of individuals affected with non-HPC as compared with 0.8% of unaffected men (P = 0.009). Among African American men, these values were 12.5% and 1.8%, respectively (P = 0.01). These results show that MSR1 may be important in susceptibility to prostate cancer in men of both African American and European descent.

Genetic regulation of ionizing radiation sensitivity and breast cancer risk

Genetic variability in DNA repair may contribute to hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation (IR) and susceptibility to breast cancer. We used samples collected from a clinic-based breast cancer case-control study to test the working hypothesis that amino acid substitution variants of DNA repair genes may contribute to prolonged cell-cycle delay following IR and breast cancer risk. Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis was used to measure cell-cycle delay. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assays were used to determine four genotypes of three DNA repair genes: XRCC1, 194 Arg/Trp and 399 Arg/Gln; XRCC3, 241 Thr/Met; and APE1, 148 Asp/Glu. The data showed that breast cancer patients had a significantly higher delay index than that of controls (P < 0.001); the means +/- SD for cases and controls were 36.0 +/- 13.1 (n = 118) and 31.4 +/- 11.5 (n = 225), respectively. There was a significant dose-response relationship between delay index, categorized into quartiles, and an increasing risk of breast cancer (crude odds ratios: 1.00, 1.00, 1.27, and 2.46, respectively; P(trend) = 0.002). In controls, prolonged cell-cycle delay was significantly associated with the number of variant alleles in APE1 Asp148Glu and XRCC1 Arg399Gln genotypes (P(trend) = 0.001). Although larger studies are needed to validate the results, our data suggest that an inherited hypersensitivity to IR may contribute to human breast carcinogenesis.

Amino acid substitution variants of APE1 and XRCC1 genes associated with ionizing radiation sensitivity

Although several variants of DNA repair genes have been identified, their functional significance has not been determined. Using samples collected from 135 cancer-free women, this study evaluated whether amino acid substitution variants of DNA repair genes contribute to ionizing radiation (IR) susceptibility as measured by prolonged cell cycle G2 delay. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assays were used to determine four genotypes: X-ray repair cross complementing group 1 (XRCC1, exon 6, C/T, 194 Arg/Trp and exon 10, G/A, 399 Arg/Gln), XRCC group 3 (XRCC3, exon 7, C/T, 241 Thr/Met) and apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1, exon 5, T/G, 148 Asp/Glu). Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis was used to measure cell cycle delay. APE1 (exon 5) genotype was significantly associated with mitotic delay (P = 0.01), with the Glu/Glu genotype having prolonged delay compared with the other two genotypes. The mitotic delay index (mean +/- SD) in women with the APE1 codon 148 Asp/Asp, Asp/Glu and Glu/Glu genotypes was 30.95 +/- 10.15 (n = 49), 30.65 +/- 10.4 (n = 60) and 39.56 +/- 13.12 (n = 21), respectively. There was a significant interaction between family history (FH) and APE1 (exon 5) genotype (P = 0.007) as well as FH and XRCC1 (exon 10) genotype (P = 0.005) in mitotic delay. Lastly, prolonged cell cycle delay was significantly associated with number of variant alleles when APE1 Asp148Glu and XRCC1 Arg399Gln genotypes were evaluated in a four-level model (chi(2) for linear trend = 10.9; P = 0.001). These results suggest that amino acid substitution variants of XRCC1 and APE1 may contribute to IR hypersensitivity.

Statistical dynamical direct methods. II. The three-phase structure invariant

The triplet distribution used for kinematical diffraction is extended to the complex case appropriate for dynamical transmission electron diffraction. It is demonstrated that this gives good results if the distributions are handled statistically rather than relying upon single triplet relationships. As a consequence, conventional statistical direct methods will yield a reasonable approximation to the effective dynamical potential for thicknesses when kinematical theory is not appropriate. The recovered effective dynamical potential may be similar to the kinematical potential, but does not have to be and in general will not be.

Alpha-tocopherol dietary supplement decreases titers of antibody against 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine (HMdU)

This study evaluated the effects of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) on oxidative DNA damage in a randomized double-blind Phase II chemoprevention trial. Oxidative DNA damage was measured by the level of auto-antibody (Ab) against 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine (HMdU) in plasma. After the baseline screening, eligible subjects (n = 31; plasma samples from 28 subjects were available for this study) were randomized to receive 15, 60, or 200 mg of alpha-tocopherol per day for 28 days. Biomarkers were measured twice at baseline--on day 1 (visit 1) and day 3 (visit 2)--and twice after intervention--on day 17 (visit 3) and day 31 (visit 4). At baseline, there was a highly significant inverse correlation between anti-HMdU Ab titer and plasma vitamin E level (r = -0.53; P = 0.004; n = 28). Smoking did not affect baseline anti-HMdU Ab titer; however, anti-HMdU Ab titer levels at baseline were significantly lower in subjects with above-median (0.75 ounce/day) alcohol consumption (P = 0.008). No significant change in anti-HMdU Ab level occurred at either visit 3 or visit 4 for subjects on the lowest dose, 15 mg alpha-tocopherol per day. Subjects receiving 60 mg of alpha-tocopherol per day had a significant decrease in anti-HMdU Ab level at visits 3 and 4 compared with baseline (P = 0.049 and P = 0.02, respectively). However, subjects receiving the highest dose, 200 mg/day, had less consistent results: a significant decrease in anti-HMdU Ab level was seen at visit 4 (P = 0.04) but not at visit 3. Our results demonstrate an inverse relationship between alpha-tocopherol and anti-HMdU Abs in plasma; oxidative DNA damage can be modulated by short-term dietary supplementation of alpha-tocopherol in some subjects.

Transmission of HIV to the placenta, fetus and mother and implications of gametic infection

Therapeutic interventions and public education are reducing pediatric AIDS cases in developed countries, but the number of HIV-infected women and children is still a major global concern. The finding that human sperm-associated HIV can be transmitted to oocytes following in vitro fertilization provides a novel viewpoint from which to consider not only the problem of HIV transmission to children but also transmission to women. In the present paper we will first discuss some recent findings that offer new perspectives on the role of the placenta, and particularly the trophoblast, in maternal-fetal transmission of HIV. Results will be presented showing that cell-mediated infection of syncytiotrophoblast cells requires direct contact between infected lymphocytes and trophoblast. We will also discuss possible routes of transmission of HIV to both mothers and their offspring in the light of data providing evidence of gametic infection. These hypothetical routes include trophoblast-mediated infection of maternal uterine cells during implantation and trophoblast-mediated infection of maternal blood cells during pregnancy. Clearly, more studies are needed in order to assess the significance and relative contribution of these routes in the transmission of HIV.

Collagen gel overlay induces apoptosis of polarized cells in cultures: disoriented cell death

In this study, we attempted to investigate the response of polarized cells to inappropriate interaction with the extracellular matrix. Cell lines of epithelial [Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) and LLC-PK1], endothelial [bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC)], and mesenchymal (ESK-4 and NIH/3T3) origins were employed. With collagen gel overlay, MDCK cells underwent membrane remodeling and gradually developed lumen formation within 24 h. Apoptosis could also be observed following cell remodeling. The ratio of apoptosis was enhanced from 12.1 +/- 2.4% within 24 h to 58.4 +/- 9.8% at day 3, and finally the monolayer was disintegrated. Collagen gel overlay-induced apoptosis was not a result of physical stress, since agarose gel overlay did not induce any morphological alterations. All epithelial and endothelial cells examined developed apoptosis in response to collagen overlay. In contrast, collagen overlay did not affect growth of fibroblasts at all, although their growth under agarose gel was slightly hindered due to physical stress. Collagen overlay-induced apoptosis seems to be a unique phenomenon for polarized cells and thus is defined as "disoriented cell death." Furthermore, anti-alpha2-integrin antibody could abolish collagen overlay-induced morphological changes and apoptosis in MDCK cells, indicating that signals through alpha2-integrin on the apical membrane are required for disoriented cell death. Finally, Bcl-2 overexpression prolonged survival of MDCK cells in response to collagen overlay, but these cells eventually developed apoptosis due to downregulation of Bcl-2 protein. These findings indicate that inappropriate cell-matrix interaction results in apoptosis, which may account for cell death mechanisms during developmental processes or under pathological conditions.

Differential expression of cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1) in Morris hepatomas and livers of tumor bearing rats

The objective of this investigation was to determine if the decrease of cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1) in hepatomas is related to the tumor growth rate. There was a significant correlation between N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) demethylase activities and CYP2E1 protein levels in rat liver and hepatomas. The levels of NDMA demethylase activities and CYP2E1 protein content were lower in hepatomas than in the corresponding host livers. NDMA demethylase activities and CYP2E1 protein levels were greater in hepatomas of slow and intermediate growth rate than in fast growing hepatomas. A similar trend was also observed with CYP2E1 mRNA levels. The results demonstrated an inverse relationship between growth rate of rat hepatomas and the expression of CYP2E1.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in human breast cancer: a case-control analysis

The importance of a genetic polymorphism (A/B allele) of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) pseudogene on chromosome 13q34-qter, and PARP enzyme activities in the development of human breast cancer were evaluated in a cancer case-control study. A total of 309 Caucasian women (> or = 50 years old) were evaluated for the PARP genotype, 70 of whom had histologically confirmed breast cancer, 128 women with benign breast diseases as study controls, and 111 reference controls. Age was significantly associated with case-control status (p < 0.0001), but family history of breast cancer, age at menarche, age at first live birth and parity were not. The frequency of the PARP B allele was similar in breast cancer cases (0.14), study controls (0.13), and reference controls (0.15). In a subset of 14 breast cancer cases and 32 study controls, the mean PARP enzyme activities (induced by H2O2 or oligonucleotide) were observed to be lower in cancer cases; an age-adjusted odds ratio of 3.40 (95% confidence interval = 0.70-19.54) for the below-median oligonucleotide-induced PARP was suggestive of an association. In subjects with the AB or BB genotype, the mean H2O2-induced PARP enzyme activity was significantly higher (p = 0.02, adjusted for case-control status and age) compared with that in subjects with the AA genotype. These findings indicate that: (a) the genetic polymorphism of the PARP pseudogene on chromosome 13 is not associated with the development of breast cancer in our study population; (b) oligonucleotide-induced PARP activity may be useful for identifying postmenopausal women at increased risk for breast cancer; and (c) there is a possible functional link between the genotype of the PARP pseudogene and enzyme activation.

Protective effects of diallyl sulfide on acetaminophen-induced toxicities

Diallyl sulfide (DAS), a major flavour component of garlic, is known to modulate drug metabolism and may protect animals from chemically induced toxicity and carcinogenesis. In this study the effects of DAS on the oxidative metabolism and hepatotoxicity induced by acetaminophen (APAP) in rats were investigated. In the hepatotoxicity evaluation of Fischer 344 rats there was a dose-dependent increase in the odds of mortality rate by APAP (P = 0.009); DAS treatment significantly protected rats from APAP-related mortality (P = 0.026). Liver toxicity determined by lactate dehydrogenase activity was significantly increased by APAP treatment (0.75 g/kg). Pretreatment with DAS protected animals from APAP-induced liver toxicity in a time- and dose-dependent fashion. Treatment of DAS (50 mg/kg) 3 hr after APAP dosing significantly (P < 0.05) protected rats from APAP-induced liver toxicity. The metabolism of APAP (50 microM) in vitro was significantly inhibited by DAS (0.3-1 mM) in liver microsomes isolated from F344 rats. As the effect of DAS on APAP-induced hepatotoxicity in vivo was observed only when DAS was administered before or shortly after (< 3 hr) APAP dosing, data suggested that the protective effect of DAS is mainly at the metabolic activation step of APAP. However, the possibility that DAS may also have effects on other drug metabolism systems, such as glutathione (GSH) and glutathione S-transferases, cannot be ruled out.

Effects of dietary supplementation of alpha-tocopherol on plasma glutathione and DNA repair activities

In a randomized double-blind trial of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), we investigated the effects of alpha-tocopherol supplementation on lipid- and water-soluble antioxidants in plasma and DNA repair activities in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes. Baseline levels of antioxidants and DNA repair activities were assessed twice before alpha-tocopherol intervention: on day 1 (visit 1) and day 3 (visit 2). During the second visit, participants were randomized to receive one of three dosages of alpha-tocopherol, 15, 60, or 200 mg/day for 4 weeks. The same biochemical measurements as at baseline were repeated twice after intervention: on day 17 (visit 3) and day 31 (visit 4). A total of 31 healthy volunteers were eligible for the study, completed all four visits and were included in the final data analysis. At baseline, no appreciable differences of dietary intake of vitamin E and plasma alpha-tocopherol were observed among the three dosage groups. In general, supplementation of alpha-tocopherol for 2-4 weeks resulted in a dose-dependent increase of plasma level of alpha-tocopherol (compared to baseline); significant increases of plasma alpha-tocopherol at visits 3 and 4 were observed in the two higher dosage groups, 60 and 200 mg, but not in the lowest dosage group, 15 mg. At visit 4 (but not visit 3), plasma glutathione levels were significantly elevated (compared to baseline) in the two higher dosage groups, 60 and 200 mg, but not in the lowest dosage group, 15 mg. In addition, there was an increase in the lipid protection ratio by supplementation of alpha-tocopherol for 2-4 weeks in the two higher dosage groups, 60 and 200 mg, but not in the lowest dosage group, 15 mg. In general, there were no consistent effects of alpha-tocopherol on DNA repair activities in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes after being adjusted for baseline DNA repair activities. Results from this study demonstrate the interrelationship between alpha-tocopherol and other antioxidants in plasma; total plasma antioxidants can be modulated by short-term dietary supplementation of alpha-tocopherol.

The effects of hydrogen peroxide on DNA repair activities

Oxygen free radicals generated by H2O2 are involved in the multistage carcinogenic process; mechanisms include carcinogen activation, oxidative DNA damage, and tumor promotion. In this study, we have evaluated another potential mechanism of H2O2 in carcinogenesis--modulation of DNA repair activities. Preexposure of human peripheral mononuclear leukocytes to H2O2 significantly inhibited DNA repair activities in response to damage induced by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, measured as unscheduled DNA synthesis. The responses to H2O2 were compared in four healthy human subjects with two sample preparations on different days. Results from multivariate general linear models showed that H2O2 significantly inhibited DNA repair in a dose-dependent manner after adjustment for between- and within-subject variabilities. There was an estimate of 5.0 units (dpm/5 x 10(5) cells) decrease in induced unscheduled DNA synthesis per unit (microM) increase of H2O2 treatment. Furthermore, there was substantial variability in DNA repair activities for the same individual sampled on different days regardless of H2O2 dose level. Results from this study suggest that H2O2 not only can induce DNA damage, but also have suppressive effects on DNA repair.

Sex-related differences in mouse renal metabolism and toxicity of acetaminophen

The objective of this study is to elucidate the role of cytochrome P450 2E1 in the metabolic activation of acetaminophen (APAP) in mouse kidneys. With the kidney microsomes from C3H/HeJ mice, a significant sex-related difference was observed in the NADPH-dependent formation of a reactive APAP metabolite which was trapped as a glutathione conjugate. The enzyme activity in male mouse kidney was about 35- and 50-fold higher than that in the females at substrate concentrations 50 and 500 microM, respectively, and treatment of female mice with testosterone significantly induced the enzyme activity in the mouse kidney. No sex-related difference in this enzyme activity, however, was observed in the livers. The oxidative metabolism of APAP in control male mouse kidney microsomes displayed an apparent low Km of 43-45 microM and an apparent high Km of 603-702 microM. Studies using monoclonal antibodies against P450 2E1 showed that P450 2E1 accounted for about half of the activity in the metabolic activation of APAP in both mouse liver and kidney. Furthermore, there was as strong correlation between the renal P450 2E1 content (measured by Western blot analysis) and the rate of APAP oxidation by renal microsomes. To test the hypothesis that the susceptibility of renal tissue to APAP toxicity is determined by the distribution and level of P450 2E1, toxicity studies were conducted. A time-dependent depletion of hepatic and renal cortical glutathione was observed in both male and female mice following a dose of 1200 mg/kg APAP. At 4 hr after APAP dosing, the level of renal cortical glutathione depletion in male mice was significantly greater than that in the females. The level of blood creatinine elevation in male mice was higher than that in the females 8 hr after APAP dosing. Histopathology studies by light and electron microscopic assessments demonstrated that renal damage by APAP was restricted mostly to the epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubules where P450 2E1 was localized. The renal proximal tubular necrosis induced by APAP was more severe in males than that in the females. Results from this study suggest that P450 2E1 plays an important role in the metabolic activation of APAP and is a key factor in determining the sex-related difference of APAP-mediated toxicity in the mouse kidney.

Mouse renal cytochrome P450IIE1: immunocytochemical localization, sex-related difference and regulation by testosterone

Cytochrome P450IIE1 is responsible for the metabolic activation of N-nitrosodimethylamine and a variety of other chemicals. Renal P450IIE1 was shown previously to be regulated by testosterone in C3H/HeJ and BALB/c mice. The present study investigated the distribution of cytochrome P450IIE1 in the kidneys of C3H/HeJ and BALB/c mice. The amount of P450IIE1 was immunotitrated by immunohistochemistry using polyclonal antibodies against rat P450IIE1. Strong immunoreactivity was identified mainly in the cortical tubules, including proximal tubules and some tubules. Weak immunoreactivity was also observed in the outer medulla when higher concentrations of antibodies were used. Much higher immunostaining was observed in male mice than in female mice when identical antibody dilutions were used. The renal P450IIE1 level in females was elevated to the same level as that in males 24 hr after administration of testosterone. The results showed a specific cellular localization of cytochrome P450IIE1 in mouse kidney. The findings may lead to a better understanding of the site-specific renal toxicity and carcinogenesis due to the activation of chemicals by cytochrome P450IIE1.

Combined effect of pH and sodium cyanate on the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation and metabolism by BCNU and hyperthermia

In previous studies, we have found that combined treatment with BCNU and sodium cyanate could have a greater effect on the survival of mice bearing B16 melanoma than treatment with either agent alone. With rat hepatoma and human colon cancer cells in culture, we have obtained evidence that the inhibition of cell proliferation by sodium cyanate is greater at pH 6.6 than at pH 7.4. In the present work, the effects of combination treatments on the proliferation of cancer cells were studied with cyanate, pH, BCNU, and hyperthermia. With HT29 human colon cancer cells, the inhibitory effect of BCNU (50-100 micrograms/ml) was greater when the cells were treated at pH 6.6 than at pH 7.4. The influence of pH appeared to be absent or minimal at lower or higher concentrations of BCNU. We confirmed our previous observation that the inhibition of proliferation of LS174T human colon cancer cells is greater at pH 6.6 than at pH 7.4, and we observed an inhibitory effect of BCNU (50 or 200 micrograms/ml). However, no more than additive effects were seen with combination treatment. An inhibitory effect of hyperthermia was seen for the incorporation of [3H]-leucine into protein of rat hepatoma cells (HTC) and for that of [3H]-thymidine into DNA of human colon cancer (HT29) cells. In neither case was the effect of hyperthermia significantly enhanced by treatment with sodium cyanate beyond that seen with one of the treatments alone. The data confirmed that the inhibitory effect of sodium cyanate on cell proliferation can be enhanced by a low pH but did not provide evidence for synergistic effects in combination with BCNU or hyperthermia.

Influence of pH on the modification of thiols by carbamoylating agents and effects on glutathione levels in normal and neoplastic cells

In previous studies, we have suggested that the selective inhibitory effect of sodium cyanate (NaOCN) on hepatoma metabolism may be due to the lower pH observed in tumors relative to normal tissues. Lower pH might enhance the action of NaOCN by increasing the formation of isocyanic acid and carbamoylation of sulfhydryl groups. In the present work, studies were conducted on the effect of pH on the carbamoylation of sulfhydryl groups. The data indicated that carbamoylation of the sulfhydryl group of glutathione by NaOCN was enhanced by decreasing the pH from 7.4 to 6.6. A less pH-dependent response was observed with organic isocyanates. However, all reactions were reversible after the pH was increased by the addition of base. Kinetic studies showed that the rate of the reaction is very rapid, a maximal effect occurring within the first 10 min. Dose-dependent modifications of cellular glutathione by NaOCN and organic isocyanates were observed in human HT29 colon tumor cells, rat HTC hepatoma cells, and rat hepatocytes. The rate of carbamoylation of the glutathione sulfhydryl group in cells was similar to that of pure glutathione (GSH). The effect of buthionine sulfoxamine on GSH levels in cells was at least as great as that of sodium cyanate, but only the latter showed inhibitory effects on macromolecular synthesis; these were very rapid, pH-dependent, and reversible in tumor cells. Our results suggest that cellular sulfhydryl group(s) other than that of GSH might be involved in the effect of NaOCN on macromolecular synthesis.

Interrelationship between sodium cyanate and pH in the regulation of tumor cell division

Previous studies have suggested that the selective inhibitory effects of sodium cyanate on tumor metabolism in vivo may be related to a lower interstitial pH in tumors. In the present work, the influence of extracellular pH on the actions of sodium cyanate was studied with one rat hepatoma cell line (HTC) and two human colon tumor cell lines (HT29 and LS174T) and with rat hepatocytes to determine if the effects are accompanied by changes in intracellular pH. With some tumor cells, an inhibition of cell proliferation was observed when the cells were exposed to an acidic medium (pH 6.6). However, the LS174T line of human tumor cells divided at pH 6.6 essentially as fast as at pH 7.4. In the concentration range of 0.02-0.1 mg/ml, a greater inhibitory effect of cyanate on cell proliferation was observed at the lower pH. Intracellular pH was found to be influenced by the sodium ion concentration of the medium to a similar degree in the three tumor lines that were examined. The intracellular pH was found to be significantly affected by cyanate in rat hepatocytes and in two of the tumor cell lines (HT29 and LS174T). The data suggested that not only does extracellular pH influence the inhibitory effect of cyanate on tumor cell proliferation but also that cyanate can affect the regulation of intracellular pH in normal and neoplastic cells.

pH-related effects of sodium cyanate on macromolecular synthesis and tumor cell division

In past work, the selective effects of sodium cyanate on macromolecular synthesis in tumors have not been seen with cells in culture. We have explored the possibility that differences in the response of tumor cells to cyanate in vivo and in vitro may be related to the pH in the environment to which cells are exposed. When rat hepatoma (HTC) cells were incubated with sodium cyanate (0.25 mg/ml), there was a greater inhibition of precursor incorporation into RNA and DNA with a decrease in pH from 7.4 to 6.6. At pH 7.4 there was no significant effect of sodium cyanate on the incorporation of [3H]leucine into protein of rat hepatocytes and HTC cells, but at pH 6.6 there were decreases of 50% or greater. The time of response and the reversibility of the inhibitory effects of sodium cyanate were not those anticipated from carbamoylation of amino groups but were compatible with modification of sulfhydryl groups. The uptake of [14C]sodium cyanate in HTC cells and human colon cancer (HT29) cells was greater at pH 6.6 than at 7.4. Over a period of 4 days there was a slower rate of cell division by HTC and HT29 at pH 6.6 than at pH 7.4. The addition of sodium cyanate caused a further reduction in the rate of proliferation, and at a concentration of 0.25 mg sodium cyanate/ml there were decreases in cell numbers. The data suggested that a lower interstitial pH in tumors than normal tissues would result in greater sensitivity to inhibitory effects of sodium cyanate on macromolecular synthesis.

Action of carbamoylating agents on the uptake of metabolites in hepatomas and liver

The effects of 2-chloroethylisocyanate, ethylisocyanate and sodium cyanate on the uptake of isotope-labeled thymidine, leucine and H2O were compared in rat liver and hepatomas. The data suggested that carbamoylating agents may have a common property of inhibiting uptake of compounds in hepatomas under conditions in which there is a smaller effect or no action in the liver of tumor-bearing rats. The distinction between tissues may have been mediated, in part, through effects on tumor circulation and was less apparent when isolated cells were studied in vitro. Preferential inhibitory effects of carbamoylating agents on the uptake of leucine and H2O were also observed with a murine hepatoma, but they were not as great as with rat hepatomas.

Disparity in the effects of two N-methyl nicotinamides on poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase and macromolecular synthesis in hepatomas

The inhibitory effects of nicotinamide analogs on the activity of poly(ADP-ribose)) synthetase were compared to effects on precursor incorporation into macromolecules in three lines of hepatoma cells (Morris hepatomas 5123C, 7777 and HTC). N'-methylnicotinamide was a less effective inhibitor of poly (ADP-ribose) synthetase than was 1-methylnicotinamide while both these compounds had smaller inhibitory effects on the enzyme than were seen with nicotinamide or 3-aminobenzamide. On the other hand, the incorporation of [3H]thymidine into DNA and of [3H]uridine into RNA were inhibited by N'-methylnicotinamide in the concentration range 2-20 mM but not by 1-methylnicotinamide. Under the conditions examined there were no significant effects on the incorporation of [14C]lysine and [3H]leucine in hepatoma cells. The data indicated that the inhibitory effect of N'-methylnicotinamide on nucleic acid synthesis may be unrelated to action on poly (ADP-ribose) synthetase.