Atomic layer deposition of Cu(i) oxide films using Cu(ii) bis(dimethylamino-2-propoxide) and water

To grow films of Cu₂O, bis-(dimethylamino-2-propoxide)Cu(ii), or Cu(dmap), is used as an atomic layer deposition precursor using only water vapor as a co-reactant. Between 110 and 175 °C, a growth rate of 0.12 ± 0.02 Å per cycle was measured using an in situ quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirms the growth of metal-oxide films featuring Cu(i).

Probing charge transfer characteristics in a donor–acceptor metal–organic framework by Raman spectroelectrochemistry and pressure-dependence studies

Donor–Acceptor Metal–Organic Frameworks display redox and pressure dependent charge transfer properties.

Interconversion between Free Charges and Bound Excitons in 2D Hybrid Lead Halide Perovskites

The optoelectronic properties of hybrid perovskites can be easily tailored by varying their components. Specifically, mixing the common short organic cation (methylammonium (MA)) with a larger one (e.g., butyl ammonium (BA)) results in 2-dimensional perovskites with varying thicknesses of inorganic layers separated by the large organic cation. In both of these applications, a detailed understanding of the dissociation and recombination of electron-hole pairs is of prime importance. In this work, we give a clear experimental demonstration of the interconversion between bound excitons and free charges as a function of temperature by combining microwave conductivity techniques with photoluminescence measurements. We demonstrate that the exciton binding energy varies strongly (between 80 and 370 meV) with the thickness of the inorganic layers. Additionally, we show that the mobility of charges increases with the layer thickness, in agreement with calculated effective masses from electronic structure calculations.

Correction: Tuning ethylene gas adsorption via metal node modulation: Cu-MOF-74 for a high ethylene deliverable capacity

Correction for 'Tuning ethylene gas adsorption via metal node modulation: Cu-MOF-74 for a high ethylene deliverable capacity' by Yijun Liao et al., Chem. Commun., 2017, 53, 9376-9379.

Optimizing Toxic Chemical Removal through Defect-Induced UiO-66-NH2 Metal-Organic Framework

For the first time, an increasing number of defects were introduced to the metal-organic framework UiO-66-NH₂ in an attempt to understand the structure-activity trade-offs associated with toxic chemical removal. It was found that an optimum exists with moderate defects for toxic chemicals that react with the linker, whereas those that require hydrolysis at the secondary building unit performed better when more defects were introduced. The insights obtained through this work highlight the ability to dial-in appropriate material formulations, even within the same parent metal-organic framework, allowing for trade-offs between reaction efficiency and mass transfer.

Fine-Tuning the Activity of Metal-Organic Framework-Supported Cobalt Catalysts for the Oxidative Dehydrogenation of Propane

Few-atom cobalt-oxide clusters, when dispersed on a Zr-based metal-organic framework (MOF) NU-1000, have been shown to be active for the oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH) of propane at low temperatures (<230 °C), affording a selective and stable propene production catalyst. In our current work, a series of promoter ions with varying Lewis acidity, including Ni(II), Zn(II), Al(III), Ti(IV) and Mo(VI), are anchored as metal-oxide,hydroxide clusters to NU-1000 followed by Co(II) ion deposition, yielding a series of NU-1000-supported bimetallic-oxo,hydroxo,aqua clusters. Using difference envelope density (DED) analyses, the spatial locations of the promoter ions and catalytic cobalt ions are determined. For all samples, the promoter ions are sited between pairs of Zr₆ nodes along the MOF c-axis, whereas the location of the cobalt ions varies with the promoter ions. These NU-1000-supported bimetallic-oxide clusters are active for propane ODH after thermal activation under O₂ to open a cobalt coordination site and to oxidize Co(II) to Co(III), as evidenced by operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the Co K-edge. In accord with the decreasing Lewis acidity of the promoter ion, catalytic activity increases in the following order: Mo(VI) < Ti(IV) < Al(III) < Zn(II) < Ni(II). The finding is attributed to increasing ease of formation of Co(III)-O^• species and stabilization of a cobalt(III)-oxyl/propane transition state as the Lewis acidity of the promoter ions decreases. The results point to an increasing ability to fine-tune the structure-dependent activity of MOF-supported heterogeneous catalysts. Coupled with mechanistic studies-computational or experimental-this ability may translate into informed prediction of improved catalysts for propane ODH and other chemical reactions.

Atomic Layer Deposition of Rhenium-Aluminum Oxide Thin Films and ReOx Incorporation in a Metal-Organic Framework

Methyltrioxorhenium (ReO₃Me) is introduced as the first rhenium atomic layer deposition (ALD) precursor and used to grow rhenium-aluminum oxide thin films in combination with trimethylaluminum (TMA-AlMe₃). The growth rate of the smooth Re-Al oxide films, with general stoichiometry Re_xAl_yO_3x, has been monitored by in situ quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and ex situ ellipsometry, and found to be 3.2 Å/cycle. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed the mixed valent composition of the film with Re(III) species being the main component. In addition, ReO₃Me has been successfully used to deposit rhenium oxide in NU-1000, a mesoporous zirconium-based metal-organic framework (MOF). The metalated MOF was found to retain porosity and crystallinity and to be catalytically active for ethene hydrogenation.

Understanding Volumetric and Gravimetric Hydrogen Adsorption Trade-off in Metal-Organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials that are promising for adsorption-based, on-board storage of hydrogen in fuel-cell vehicles. Volumetric and gravimetric hydrogen capacities are the key factors that determine the size and weight of the MOF-filled tank required to store a certain amount of hydrogen for reasonable driving range. Therefore, they must be optimized so the tank is neither too large nor too heavy. Because the goals of maximizing MOF volumetric and gravimetric hydrogen adsorption loadings individually are incompatible, an in-depth understanding of the trade-off between MOF volumetric and gravimetric loadings is necessary to achieve the best compromise between these properties. Here we study, both experimentally and computationally, the trade-off between volumetric and gravimetric cryo-adsorbed hydrogen deliverable capacity by taking an isoreticular series of highly stable zirconium MOFs, NU-1101, NU-1102, and NU-1103 as a case study. These MOFs were studied under recently proposed operating conditions: 77 K/100 bar →160 K/5 bar. We found the difference between highest and lowest measured deliverable capacity in the MOF series to be ca. 40% gravimetrically, but only ca. 10% volumetrically. From our molecular simulation results, we found hydrogen "monolayer" adsorption to be proportional to the surface area, whereas hydrogen "pore filling" adsorption is proportional to the pore volume. Thus, we found that the higher variability in gravimetric deliverable capacity in contrast to the volumetric capacity, occurs due to the proportional relation between gravimetric surface area and pore volume in the NU-110x series in contrast to the inverse relation between volumetric surface area and void fraction. Additionally, we find better correlations with geometric surface areas than with BET areas. NU-1101 presents the highest measured volumetric performance with 46.6 g/L (9.1 wt %), whereas NU-1103 presents the highest gravimetric one with 12.6 wt % (43.2 g/L).

Determining the Conduction Band-Edge Potential of Solar-Cell-Relevant Nb2O5 Fabricated by Atomic Layer Deposition

Often key to boosting photovoltages in photoelectrochemical and related solar-energy-conversion devices is the preferential slowing of rates of charge recombination-especially recombination at semiconductor/solution, semiconductor/polymer, or semiconductor/perovskite interfaces. In devices featuring TiO₂ as the semiconducting component, a common approach to slowing recombination is to install an ultrathin metal oxide barrier layer or trap-passivating layer atop the semiconductor, with the needed layer often being formed via atomic layer deposition (ALD). A particularly promising barrier layer material is Nb₂O₅. Its conduction-band-edge potential E_CB is low enough that charge injection from an adsorbed molecular, polymeric, or solid-state light absorber and into the semiconductor can still occur, but high enough that charge recombination is inhibited. While a few measurements of E_CB have been reported for conventionally synthesized, bulk Nb₂O₅, none have been described for ALD-fabricated versions. Here, we specifically determine the conduction-band-edge energy of ALD-fabricated Nb₂O₅ relative to that of TiO₂. We find that, while the value for ALD-Nb₂O₅ is indeed higher than that for TiO₂, the difference is less than anticipated based on measurements of conventionally synthesized Nb₂O₅ and is dependent on the thermal history of the material. The implications of the findings for optimization of competing interfacial rate processes, and therefore photovoltages, are briefly discussed.

Thermal Conductivity of ZIF-8 Thin-Film under Ambient Gas Pressure

Thermal conductivity is a crucial parameter for managing exothermal gas adsorption in metal organic frameworks (MOFs), but experimental studies have been limited. In this work, the thermal conductivity of a zeolitic imidazolate framework ZIF-8 was experimentally determined on thin films using the 3ω technique at different partial pressures in perfluorohexane, nitrogen, air, and vacuum ambients at 300 K. In contrast to theoretical prediction, the thermal conductivity κ = 0.326 ± 0.002 W/m K was approximately independent of ambient gas species and pressure from atmospheric pressure to vacuum. This work introduces a useful approach for probing MOF thermal conductivity under gas adsorption.

Detoxification of a Sulfur Mustard Simulant Using a BODIPY-Functionalized Zirconium-Based Metal-Organic Framework

Effective detoxification of chemical warfare agents is a global necessity. As a powerful photosensitizer, a halogenated BODIPY ligand is postsynthetically appended to the Zr₆ nodes of the metal-organic framework (MOF), NU-1000, to enhance singlet oxygen generation from the MOF. The BODIPY/MOF material is then used as a heterogeneous photocatalyst to produce singlet oxygen under green LED irradiation. The singlet oxygen selectively detoxifies the sulfur mustard simulant, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), to the less toxic sulfoxide derivative (2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfoxide, CEESO) with a half-life of approximately 2 min.

Atomistic Approach toward Selective Photocatalytic Oxidation of a Mustard-Gas Simulant: A Case Study with Heavy-Chalcogen-Containing PCN-57 Analogues

Here we describe the synthesis of two Zr-based benzothiadiazole- and benzoselenadiazole-containing metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for the selective photocatalytic oxidation of the mustard gas simulant, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES). The photophysical properties of the linkers and MOFs are characterized by steady-state absorption and emission, time-resolved emission, and ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy. The benzoselenadiazole-containing MOF shows superior catalytic activity compared to that containing benzothiadiazole with a half-life of 3.5 min for CEES oxidation to nontoxic 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfoxide (CEESO). Transient absorption spectroscopy performed on the benzoselenadiazole linker reveals the presence of a triplet excited state, which decays with a lifetime of 9.4 μs, resulting in the generation of singlet oxygen for photocatalysis. This study demonstrates the effect of heavy chalcogen substitution within a porous framework for the modulation of photocatalytic activity.

Size Effect of the Active Sites in UiO-66-Supported Nickel Catalysts Synthesized via Atomic Layer Deposition for Ethylene Hydrogenation

Ni(II) ions have been deposited on the Zr6 nodes of a metal-organic framework (MOF), UiO-66, via an ALD-like process (ALD = atomic layer deposition). By varying the number of ALD cycles, three Ni-decorated UiO-66 materials were synthesized. A suite of physical methods has been used to characterize these materials, indicating structural and high-surface-area features of the parent MOF are retained. Elemental analysis via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) indicates that the anchored Ni ions are mainly on surface and near-surface MOF defect sites. Upon activation, all three materials are catalytic for ethylene hydrogenation, but their catalytic activities significantly vary, with the largest clusters displaying the highest per-nickel-atom activity. The study highlights the ease and effectiveness ALD in MOFs (AIM) for synthesizing, specifically, UiO-66-supported NiyOx catalysts.

Postsynthetic Tuning of Metal-Organic Frameworks for Targeted Applications

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are periodic, hybrid, atomically well-defined porous materials that typically form by self-assembly and consist of inorganic nodes (metal ions or clusters) and multitopic organic linkers. MOFs as a whole offer many intriguing properties, including ultrahigh porosity, tunable chemical functionality, and low density. These properties point to numerous potential applications, including gas storage, chemical separations, catalysis, light harvesting, and chemical sensing, to name a few. Reticular chemistry, or the linking of molecular building blocks into predetermined network structures, has been employed to synthesize thousands of MOFs. Given the vast library of candidate nodes and linkers, the number of potentially synthetically accessible MOFs is enormous. Nevertheless, a powerful complementary approach to obtain specific structures with desired chemical functionality is to modify known MOFs after synthesis. This approach is particularly useful when incorporation of particular chemical functionalities via direct synthesis is challenging or impossible. The challenges may stem from limited stability or solubility of precursors, unwanted secondary reactivity of precursors, or incompatibility of functional groups with the conditions needed for direct synthesis. MOFs can be postsynthetically modified by replacing the metal nodes and/or organic linkers or via functionalization of the metal nodes and/or organic linkers. Here we describe some of our efforts toward the development and application of postsynthetic strategies for imparting desired chemical functionalities in MOFs of known topology. The techniques include methods for functionalizing MOF nodes, i.e., solvent-assisted ligand incorporation (SALI) and atomic layer deposition in MOFs (AIM) as well as a method to replace structural linkers, termed solvent-assisted linker exchange (SALE), also known as postsynthethic exchange (PSE). For each functionalization strategy, we first describe its chemical basis along with the requirements for its successful implementation. We then present a small number of examples, with an emphasis on those that (a) convey the underlying concepts and/or (b) lead to functional structures (e.g., catalysts) that would be difficult or impossible to access via direct routes. The examples, however, are only illustrative, and a significant body of work exists from both our lab and others, especially for the SALE/PSE strategy. We refer readers to the papers cited and to the references therein. More exciting, in our view, will be new examples and new applications of the functionalization strategies-especially applications made possible by creatively combining the strategies. Underexplored (again, in our view) are implementations that impart electrical conductivity, enable increasingly selective chemical sensing, or facilitate cascade catalysis. It will be interesting to see where these strategies and others take this compelling field over the next few years.