Tolerance to COX-2 inhibitors in children with hypersensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

BACKGROUND

Hypersensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can affect children, with the mechanism proposed being inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzyme-1 (COX-1). In these patients nonchemically related NSAIDs, including COX-2 inhibitors, can induce the reaction, hampering treatment of fever and inflammatory processes.

OBJECTIVES

To analyse retrospectively tolerance to etoricoxib, a selective COX-2 inhibitor, and to meloxicam, a preferential COX-2 inhibitor, in children with hypersensitivity to NSAIDs.

METHODS

Clinical records of children (aged 1-14 years) diagnosed with hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs from January 2006 to January 2013 were included. The diagnosis was confirmed by oral drug provocation test (DPT) with the culprit NSAIDs and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). Tolerance to paracetamol, etoricoxib and meloxicam was also evaluated.

RESULTS

The study included 41 children with a positive DPT with ASA and the culprit NSAID. DPT with paracetamol and etoricoxib was negative in all children, although two (4.9%) children developed a reaction after the administration of meloxicam.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that both etoricoxib and meloxicam are good alternatives for treatment in older children with hypersensitivity to NSAIDs.

How predictors and patterns of stroke recurrence after a TIA differ during the first year of follow-up

The highest risk of subsequent stroke after a TIA occurs within the first week after the index event. However, the risk of stroke recurrence (SR) remains high during the first year of follow-up. We studied the temporal pattern and predictors of SR (at 7 days and from 7 days to 1-year follow-up). Between April 2008 and December 2009, we included 1,255 consecutive TIA patients from 30 Spanish stroke centers (PROMAPA study). We determined the short-term (at 7 days) and long-term (from 8 days to 1 year) risk of SR. Patients who underwent short-term recurrence and long-term recurrence were compared with regard to clinical findings, vascular territories, and etiology. Enough information (clinical variables and extracranial vascular imaging) was assessed in 1,137 (90.6 %) patients. The 7-day stroke risk was 2.6 %. 32 (3.0 %) patients had an SR after 7-day follow-up. Multiple TIA (HR 3.50, 1.67-7.35, p = 0.001) and large artery atherosclerosis (HR 2.51, 1.17-5.37, p = 0.018) were independent predictors of early SR, whereas previous stroke (HR 1.40, 1.03-1.92, p = 0.034) and coronary heart disease (2.65, 1.28-5.50, p = 0.009) were independent predictors of late SR. Notoriously, 80 % of SR happened in the same territory of the index TIA at 7-day follow-up, whereas only 38 % during the long-term follow-up (p < 0.001). Different predictors of SR were identified throughout the follow-up period. Moreover, the ischemic mechanism differed in early and late stroke recurrences.

Advanced phenotyping in hypersensitivity drug reactions to NSAIDs

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the medications most frequently involved in hypersensitivity drug reactions. Because NSAIDs are prescribed for many conditions, this is a world-wide problem affecting patients of all ages. Various hypersensitivity reactions have been reported, mainly affecting the skin and/or the respiratory airways. The most frequent of these is acute urticaria, which can be induced by several different NSAIDs. Both specific and non-specific immunological pathways have been proposed as underlying mechanisms. This review presents the clinical phenotypes and the drugs involved in NSAID hypersensitivity. Five major clinical syndromes can be distinguished: aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), aspirin-exacerbated cutaneous disease (AECD), multiple NSAID-induced urticaria/angioedema (MNSAID-UA), single NSAID-IgE reactions and single NSAID T cell responses. However, further classification is possible within these five major entities, by detailed descriptions of the clinical characteristics enabling more phenotypes to be defined. This detailed differentiation now seems required in order to undertake appropriate pharmacogenetic studies.

Diagnostic evaluation of hypersensitivity reactions to beta-lactam antibiotics in a large population of children

INTRODUCTION

Hypersensitivity reactions to beta-lactams (BLs) are often reported in children, with amoxicillin and, to a lesser extent, cephalosporins being the most frequent drugs involved. Although many of these children are considered to be allergic, a careful evaluation only confirms a low percentage.

OBJECTIVES

To analyse the clinical data, sensitization profile and diagnostic methods used in a large group of children with a clinical history of hypersensitivity reactions to BLs.

METHODS

The study included children aged 1-14 yr with symptoms suggestive of hypersensitivity to BLs from January 2006-December 2012. Diagnosis was confirmed from a clinical history, specific IgE determination, skin testing and, if necessary, a drug provocation test (DPT).

RESULTS

Of a total of 783 patients studied, only 62 (7.92%) were confirmed as being allergic, 9 (14.52%) with immediate and 53 (85.48%) with non-immediate reactions. In those with immediate reactions, 2 (22.22%) were diagnosed by in vitro test, 2 (22.22%) by skin testing and 5 (55.56%) by DPT; in those with non-immediate reactions, 2 (3.77%) were diagnosed by skin testing and 51 (96.23%) by DPT. In all cases, DPT was positive to the culprit drug (29 AX-CLV, 26 AX, 1 cefixime and 1 cefaclor), and the most usual symptoms were exanthema in 43 cases, urticaria in 12, urticaria-angio-oedema in 1 and erythema in 1 case.

CONCLUSION

After an allergological work-up, over 90% of the children evaluated were finally confirmed as tolerant to BLs. Most reactions were of the non-immediate type, and DPT was an essential tool for diagnosis.

Trends in hypersensitivity drug reactions: more drugs, more response patterns, more heterogeneity

Hypersensitivity drug reactions (HDRs) vary over time in frequency, drugs involved, and clinical entities. Specific reactions are mediated by IgE, other antibody isotypes (IgG or IgM), and T cells. Nonspecific HDRs include those caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). beta-Lactams--the most important of which are amoxicillin and clavulanic acid--are involved in specific immunological mechanisms. Fluoroquinolones (mainly moxifloxacin, followed by ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin) can also induce HDRs mediated by IgE and T cells. In the case of radio contrast media, immediate reactions have decreased, while nonimmediate reactions, mediated by T cells, have increased. There has been a substantial rise in hypersensitivity reactions to antibiotics and latex in perioperative allergic reactions to anesthetics. NSAIDs are the most frequent drugs involved in HDRs. Five well-defined clinical entities, the most common of which is NSAID-induced urticaria/angioedema, have been proposed in a new consensus classification. Biological agents are proteins including antibodies that have been humanized in order to avoid adverse reactions. Reactions can be mediated by IgE or T cells or they may be due to an immunological imbalance. Chimeric antibodies are still in use and may have epitopes that are recognized by the immune system, resulting in allergic reactions.

Practical guidelines for diagnosing hypersensitivity reactions to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the drugs most frequently involved in hypersensitivity reactions. These reactions include various clinical entities with different mechanisms leading to the release of inflammatory mediators. Characterization of patients based on clinical manifestations and suspected underlying mechanisms is critical for implementation of adequate diagnostic procedures and patient management. Our objectives were to prepare a systematic review of available scientific evidence and to provide general guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs. We also propose a practical algorithm for the diagnosis of specific types of hypersensitivity to NSAIDs and provide recommendations for the management of hypersensitive patients.

In vitro and intracellular activities of fosfomycin against clinical strains of Listeria monocytogenes

This study was designed to evaluate the potential role of fosfomycin as a therapeutic agent in human listeriosis. The in vitro activity of fosfomycin against 154 Listeria monocytogenes clinical isolates under conditions that mimic the induction of prfA expression was determined and was correlated with fosfomycin intracellular antimicrobial activity. In vitro, partial induction of prfA expression is achieved through bacterial growth in brain-heart infusion agar supplemented with activated charcoal (BHIC). A fosfomycin pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic breakpoint of ≤64 mg/L was estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation to assess the success of an intravenous fosfomycin dose of 300 mg/kg/day over 5000 individuals. Eighty strains (51.9%) were susceptible to fosfomycin in BHIC, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of ≤64 mg/L; 13 strains (8.4%) had the epidemic clone (EC) marker. In addition, 27 strains (17.5%) had a three doubling dilutions reduction in the MIC from ≥1024 mg/L to 128 mg/L (96-128 mg/L by Etest). The fosfomycin modal MIC is lower under prfA expression. However, this effect is smaller in terms of clinical categorisation of isolates and can be influenced by the serotype and clonal type. In A549 cells, the reductions in bacterial inocula of the two susceptible isolates studied after 1h and 24h of incubation with fosfomycin at 0.5× the human maximum serum concentration (Cmax) were 45.8% and 46.6%, and 93.8% and 99.1%, respectively. Slightly higher reductions were found with fosfomycin at 1× Cmax. The resistant strain tested showed significantly lower reductions in all assays.

Value of the clinical history in the diagnosis of urticaria/angioedema induced by NSAIDs with cross-intolerance

BACKGROUND

Multiple Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)-induced urticaria/angioedema is the most common manifestation of hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs. Diagnostic evaluation is based on the clinical history and a drug provocation test.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the role of the clinical history in the diagnosis of multiple NSAID-induced urticaria/angioedema.

METHODS

We studied a group of patients with an unequivocal history of urticaria and/or angioedema after NSAID intake. Subjects had to have had at least two episodes of cutaneous symptoms with two different COX-1 inhibitors. The diagnosis was confirmed in all cases by a drug provocation test with acetyl salicylic acid (ASA). Multivariate analysis was done by analysing different variables, including number of drugs involved, episodes and time elapsed between drug intake and symptom onset.

RESULTS

Of the total group of 75 cases with multiple NSAID-induced urticaria/angioedema diagnosed according to the clinical history, 76% developed a positive drug provocation test with ASA. The risk for having hypersensitivity was 17 times higher in patients who developed symptoms within the first 60 min after drug intake, 13 times higher in those who experienced reactions with more than two non-chemically related NSAIDs, and 10 times higher in women.

CONCLUSIONS

Drug provocation testing with ASA confirms the diagnosis of multiple NSAID-induced urticaria/angioedema in up to 92% of cases with an unequivocal clinical history, when reactions occur within 1 h and more than two different NSAIDs are involved.

Genetic variants of the arachidonic acid pathway in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced acute urticaria

BACKGROUND

To date, genetic studies of hypersensitivity reactions to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been carried out mainly in aspirin-induced asthma and to a lesser extent in chronic urticaria, with no studies in patients with acute urticaria (AU), the most common entity induced by these drugs.

OBJECTIVE

In this work, we analysed the association of common variants of 15 relevant genes encoding both enzymes and receptors from the arachidonic acid (AA) pathway with NSAID-induced AU.

METHODS

Patients were recruited in several Allergy Services that are integrated into the Spanish network RIRAAF, and diagnosed of AU induced by cross-intolerance (CRI) to NSAIDs. Genotyping was carried out by TaqMan allelic discrimination assays.

RESULTS

A total of 486 patients with AU induced by CRI to NSAIDs and 536 unrelated controls were included in this large Spanish case-control study. Seven variants from 31 tested in six genes were associated in a discovery study population from Malaga (0.0003 ≤ p-value ≤ 0.041). A follow-up analysis in an independent sample from Madrid replicated three of the SNPs from the ALOX15 (rs7220870), PTGDR (rs8004654) and CYSLTR1 (rs320095) genes (1.055x10(-6) ≤meta-analysis p-value ≤ 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Genetic variants of the AA pathway may play an important role in NSAID-induced AU. These data may help understand the mechanism underlying this disease.

Predictive value of brain and vascular imaging including intracranial vessels in transient ischaemic attack patients: external validation of the ABCD3-I score

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Recently, brain and vascular imaging have been added to clinical variables to identify patients with transient ischaemic attack (TIA) with a high risk of stroke recurrence. The aim of our study was to externally validate the ABCD3-I score and the same score taking into account intracranial circulation.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 1137 patients with TIA from the PROMAPA study who underwent diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI) within 7 days of symptom onset. Clinical variables and diagnostic work-up were recorded prospectively. The end-points were subsequent stroke at 7 and 90 days follow-up.

RESULTS

A total of 463 (40.7%) subjects fulfilled all inclusion criteria. During follow-up, eight patients (1.7%) had a stroke within 7 days, and 14 (3.1%) had a stroke within 3 months. In the Cox proportional hazard multivariate analyses, the combination of large-artery atherosclerosis and positive DWI remained as independent predictors of stroke recurrence at 7- and 90-day follow-up [HR 8.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.89-23.46, P < 0.001]. The ABCD3-I score was a powerful predictor of subsequent stroke. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.83 (95% CI 0.72-0.93) at 7 days and 0.69 (95% CI 0.53-0.85) at 90 days. When we include intracranial vessel disease in the score, the area under the curve increases but the difference observed was non-significant.

CONCLUSION

The inclusion of vascular and neuroimaging information to clinical scales (ABCD3-I score) provides important prognostic information and also helps management decisions, although it cannot give a complete distinction between high-risk and low-risk groups.

In vitro methods for diagnosing nonimmediate hypersensitivity reactions to drugs

Nonimmediate drug hypersensitivity reactions (DHRs) are difficult to manage in daily clinical practice, mainly owing to their heterogeneous clinical manifestations and the lack of selective biological markers. In vitro methods are necessaryto establish a diagnosis, especially given the low sensitivity of skin tests and the inherent risks of drug provocation testing. In vitro evaluation of nonimmediate DHRs must include approaches that can be applied during the different phases of the reaction. During the acute phase, monitoring markers in both skin and peripheral blood helps to discriminate between immediate and nonimmediate DHRs with cutaneous responses and to distinguish between reactions that, although they present similar clinical symptoms, are produced by different immunological mechanisms and therefore have a different treatment and prognosis. During the resolution phase, in vitro testing is used to detect the response of T cells to drug stimulation; however, this approach has certain limitations, such as the lack of validated studies assessing sensitivity. Moreover, in vitro tests indicate an immune response that is not always related to a DHR. In this review, members of the Immunology and Drug Allergy Committee of the Spanish Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (SEAIC) provide an overview of the most widely used in vitro tests for evaluating nonimmediate DHRs.

Prospective, multicenter clinical trial to validate new products for skin tests in the diagnosis of allergy to penicillin

BACKGROUND

Allergy to penicillin is the most commonly reported type of drug hypersensitivity. Diagnosis is currently confirmed using skin tests with benzylpenicillin reagents, ie, penicilloyl-polylysine (PPL) as the major determinant of benzylpenicillin and benzylpenicillin, benzylpenicilloate and benzylpenilloate as a minor determinant mixture (MDM).

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize and assess the diagnostic capacity of 2 new benzylpenicillin reagents in patients with immediate hypersensitivity reactions to B-lactams: benzylpenicilloyl octa-L-lysine (BP-OL) as the major determinant and benzylpenilloate (penilloate) as the minor determinant.

METHODS

Prospective multicenter clinical trial performed in 18 Spanish centers. Efficacy was assessed by detection of positive skin test results in an allergic population and negative skin test results in a nonallergic, drug-exposed population. Sensitivity, specificity, and negative and positive predictive values were determined.

RESULTS

The study sample comprised 94 allergic patients: 31 (35.23%) presented anaphylaxis, 4 (4.55%) anaphylactic shock, 51 (58.04%) urticaria, and 2 (2.27%) no specific condition. The culprit 8-lactams were amoxicillin in 63 cases (71.60%), benzypencillin in 14 cases (15.89%), cephalosporins in 2 cases (2.27%), other drugs in 3 cases (3.42%), and unidentified agents in 6 cases (6.82%). The results of testing with BP-OL were positive in 46 cases (52.3%); the results of testing with penilloate were positive in 33 cases (37.5%). When both reagents were taken into consideration, sensitivity reached 61.36% and specificity 100%. Skin testing with penilloate was significantly more often negative when the interval between the reaction and the study was longer.

CONCLUSIONS

The sensitivity of BP-OL and penilloate was 61%. Considering that amoxicillin was the culprit drug in 71% of reactions, these results indicate that most patients were allergic to the whole group of penicillins. These data support the use of benzylpenicillin determinants in the diagnosis of allergy to beta-lactams, even in predominantly amoxicillin-allergic populations.

Graph based study of allergen cross-reactivity of plant lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) using microarray in a multicenter study

The study of cross-reactivity in allergy is key to both understanding. the allergic response of many patients and providing them with a rational treatment In the present study, protein microarrays and a co-sensitization graph approach were used in conjunction with an allergen microarray immunoassay. This enabled us to include a wide number of proteins and a large number of patients, and to study sensitization profiles among members of the LTP family. Fourteen LTPs from the most frequent plant food-induced allergies in the geographical area studied were printed into a microarray specifically designed for this research. 212 patients with fruit allergy and 117 food-tolerant pollen allergic subjects were recruited from seven regions of Spain with different pollen profiles, and their sera were tested with allergen microarray. This approach has proven itself to be a good tool to study cross-reactivity between members of LTP family, and could become a useful strategy to analyze other families of allergens.

The diamine oxidase gene is associated with hypersensitivity response to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the drugs most frequently involved in hypersensitivity drug reactions. Histamine is released in the allergic response to NSAIDs and is responsible for some of the clinical symptoms. The aim of this study is to analyze clinical association of functional polymorphisms in the genes coding for enzymes involved in histamine homeostasis with hypersensitivity response to NSAIDs. We studied a cohort of 442 unrelated Caucasian patients with hypersensitivity to NSAIDs. Patients who experienced three or more episodes with two or more different NSAIDs were included. If this requirement was not met diagnosis was established by challenge. A total of 414 healthy unrelated controls ethnically matched with patients and from the same geographic area were recruited. Analyses of the SNPs rs17740607, rs2073440, rs1801105, rs2052129, rs10156191, rs1049742 and rs1049793 in the HDC, HNMT and DAO genes were carried out by means of TaqMan assays. The detrimental DAO 16 Met allele (rs10156191), which causes decreased metabolic capacity, is overrepresented among patients with crossed-hypersensitivity to NSAIDs with an OR  = 1.7 (95% CI  = 1.3–2.1; Pc  = 0.0003) with a gene-dose effect (P = 0.0001). The association was replicated in two populations from different geographic areas (Pc  = 0.008 and Pc  = 0.004, respectively).

Effect of Pru p 3 on dendritic cell maturation and T-lymphocyte proliferation in peach allergic patients

BACKGROUND

Pru p 3 is the major peach allergen and the most frequent cause of food allergy in adults in the Mediterranean area. Although its allergenicity is well characterized, its ability to generate a T-cell response is not completely known.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of Pru p 3 allergen on dendritic cell (DC) maturation and specific T-cell response (T(H)1/T(H)2) in peach allergic patients.

METHODS

Peach allergic patients (n = 11) and tolerant controls (n = 14) were included in the study. Monocyte-derived DC maturation after incubation with Pru p 3 was evaluated by the increase of maturational markers (CD80, CD86, and CD83) by flow cytometry. Lymphocyte proliferation was evaluated by coculturing monocyte-derived DCs and 5,6-carboxyfluorescein diacetate N-succinimidyl ester-stained lymphocytes with different concentrations of Pru p 3 (25, 10, and 1 μg/mL) by flow cytometry and cytokine production.

RESULTS

Pru p 3 induced a significant increase in the CD80, CD86, and CD83 expression on stimulated DCs from patients compared with controls. The lymphocyte proliferative response after Pru p 3 stimulation was also significantly higher along with an increase in interleukin 8 in patients compared with tolerant controls.

CONCLUSION

Pru p 3 allergen induces changes in DC maturational status mainly in peach allergic patients. An increase in lymphocyte proliferative response accompanied with a different cytokine pattern was also observed compared with healthy controls.

Drug hypersensitivity reactions: response patterns, drug involved, and temporal variations in a large series of patients

BACKGROUND

Drug hypersensitivity reactions (DHRs) are among the most frequent reasons for consultation in allergy departments, and are becoming more common due to increasing prevalence and case complexity.

OBJECTIVE

To study the clinical characteristics, drugs involved, diagnostic methods, and temporal variation of DHRs in a large series of patients over a 6-year period.

METHODS

We included all patients attending our department between 2005 and 2010. The diagnosis was performed by in vivo and/or in vitro tests (basophil activation test and specific immunoglobulin [Ig] E in serum and drug provocation testing [DPT]) when indicated.

RESULTS

We evaluated 4460 patients who reported 4994 episodes (mean [SD] of 1.13 [0.36] [range, 1-3] episodes per patient). Based on clinical history, 37% of the episodes were attributed to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 29.4% to beta-lactam antibiotics (BLs), 15% to non-BLs, and 18.4% to other drugs.Analysis of the 1683 patients (37.45%) finally confirmed as allergic showed the most frequent diagnosis to be hypersensitivity to multiple NSAIDs (47.29%), followed by immediate reactions to BLs (18.12%). There was an increase in reactions to non-BLs (from 21.2% to 31.9%; P < .03) over the study period, mainly due to an increase in allergy to quinolones (from 0.5% to 6.8%; P < .02); 44% of patients were diagnosed by clinical history, 14.6% by skin tests, 10.4% by in vitro tests, and 30.8% by DPT.

CONCLUSIONS

NSAIDs were the drugs most frequently involved in DHRs and the most common diagnosis was urticaria/angioedema with cross intolerance. Reactions to emerging drugs such as quinolone derivatives and radiocontrast media are becoming more common.

Response to a selective COX-2 inhibitor in patients with urticaria/angioedema induced by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

BACKGROUND

In subjects with hypersensitivity reactions with cross-intolerance to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), tolerance to selective COX-2 inhibitors has not been evaluated in large series of well-phenotyped cases.

METHODS

We evaluated 252 patients with urticaria and/or angioedema caused by hypersensitivity owing to cross-intolerance to NSAIDs. In addition to the clinical history, diagnosis was confirmed by provocation to an alternative NSAID. Two groups were considered: (A) patients with cross-intolerance to NSAIDs and intolerance to paracetamol and (B) patients with cross-intolerance to NSAIDs and good tolerance to paracetamol. Etoricoxib was administered to Group A patients and to a representative sample of Group B patients. In the event of a positive response, serum tryptase levels were determined and skin biopsy was performed in five patients in each group.

RESULTS

Ibuprofen was the most commonly implicated drug, followed by acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). Urticaria was the most common manifestation, followed by angioedema. Most of the patients developed symptoms within 1 h. Twenty-five percent in Group A (n = 47) and 6% in Group B (n = 50) were intolerant to etoricoxib. Skin biopsy showed mast cell activation with the release of tryptase to the extracellular space but without the increase in serum tryptase levels.

CONCLUSION

Selective COX-2 inhibitors may be unsafe in subjects with urticaria and/or angioedema caused by hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs with cross-intolerance if they are intolerant to paracetamol. A quarter of patients who were intolerant to this drug were also intolerant to etoricoxib. In subjects with hypersensitivity to NSAIDs and intolerance to paracetamol, selective COX-2 inhibitors should be administered as a controlled, incremental dose provocation test to assess tolerance.

Characteristics of subjects experiencing hypersensitivity to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: patterns of response

BACKGROUND

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most frequently involved groups of medicines in hypersensitivity drug reactions. Two mechanisms can induce the reaction: immunological (sensitization) due to a specific IgE or T cell response and pharmacological (cyclooxygenase inhibition). The contribution of each of these mechanisms to the reactions is not well known.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse a large group of subjects with confirmed hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs.

METHODS

The drugs involved, the clinical entities induced and the time interval between drug intake and appearance of the reaction were studied. In cases where the diagnosis was not confirmed, a drug provocation test was carried out. Atopy status was also assessed with prick test and total IgE in serum.

RESULTS

A total of 659 patients were finally considered to have had hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs; 76% had cross-intolerance (CI) and 24% were selective responders (SR). The most important drugs involved in CI were propionic acid derivatives, in most cases ibuprofen, and in SR pyrazolones. In CI, the most frequent clinical entity was urticaria and angio-oedema and to a lesser extent airway involvement. The skin and airways were both involved in an important proportion of cases. The most frequent entities in SR were urticaria and/or angio-oedema followed by anaphylaxis. Atopy was significantly associated in the CI group (P<0.005).

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions by CI to NSAIDs are the most frequent entities induced by these compounds. In addition to aspirin, other NSAIDs are taking on a predominant role. Atopy can be a predisposing factor in patients with CI.

High prevalence of community-acquired norovirus gastroenteritis among hospitalized children: a prospective study

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) causes significant morbidity, especially in young children, and frequently requires hospitalization even in developed countries. Surveillance studies of AGE are important to determine the prevalence and variety of bacterial and viral pathogens, to initiate targeted preventive measures, such as vaccine programmes, and to monitor its impact. A prospective study was conducted in children <5 years old, admitted with AGE between April 2006 and April 2007 to the Virgen del Rocío University Hospital, Seville, Spain. Demographic and clinical data were collected and patients followed-up after hospital discharge. A stool sample from each child was screened for enteropathogenic bacteria and tested by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction for rotavirus, astrovirus, norovirus and sapovirus and by the immunochromatographic method for enteric adenoviruses. Norovirus was the most common pathogen in hospitalized children, being detected in 27%, followed by rotavirus 21%. Mixed infection occurred in nearly 20% of all norovirus infections and was most commonly associated with Salmonella spp. Rotavirus infection was associated with an overall higher severe clinical score compared with norovirus infection. Lactose intolerance was observed in 29 children (7.5%) and most commonly due to rotavirus infection (p <0.001). Seizures were reported in four children. Norovirus was the commonest cause of AGE in hospitalized children <5 years during 2006-2007 in Seville, Spain. The use of these molecular techniques should be included routinely for the surveillance of sporadic cases and outbreaks of norovirus AGE in children attending hospitals as well as healthcare centres.

Hypersensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) - classification, diagnosis and management: review of the EAACI/ENDA(#) and GA2LEN/HANNA*

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are responsible for 21-25% of reported adverse drug events which include immunological and nonimmunological hypersensitivity reactions. This study presents up-to-date information on pathomechanisms, clinical spectrum, diagnostic tools and management of hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs. Clinically, NSAID hypersensitivity is particularly manifested by bronchial asthma, rhinosinusitis, anaphylaxis or urticaria and variety of late cutaneous and organ-specific reactions. Diagnosis of hypersensitivity to a NSAID includes understanding of the underlying mechanism and is necessary for prevention and management. A stepwise approach to the diagnosis of hypersensitivity to NSAIDs is proposed, including clinical history, in vitro testing and/or provocation test with a culprit or alternative drug depending on the type of the reaction. The diagnostic process should result in providing the patient with written information both on forbidden and on alternative drugs.

Modified sequential multiplex PCR for determining capsular serotypes of invasive pneumococci recovered from Seville

The heptavalent pneumococcal vaccine's introduction resulted in a decline in invasive disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, but was accompanied by an increase in non-vaccine serotypes. We evaluated a modified scheme of the sequential multiplex PCRs adapted to the prevalence of serotypes in Seville (Spain) for determining capsular serotypes of S. pneumoniae invasive clinical isolates. In adults, the modified scheme allowed us to type 73% with the first three reactions, and 92% with two additional PCRs. In paediatric patients, it allowed us to type 73.5% with the first three reactions, and 90% with the two additional PCRs. The multiplex PCR approach was successfully adapted to target the serotypes most prevalent in Seville.