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Zvolensky MJ, Farris SG, Kotov R, Schechter CB, Bromet E, Gonzalez A, Vujanovic A, Pietrzak RH, Crane M, Kaplan J, Moline J, Southwick SM, Feder A, Udasin I, Reissman DB, Luft BJ. World Trade Center disaster and sensitization to subsequent life stress: A longitudinal study of disaster responders. Prev Med 2015; 75:70-4. [PMID: 25840022 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The current study examined the role of World Trade Center (WTC) disaster exposure (hours spent working on the site, dust cloud exposure, and losing friend/loved one) in exacerbating the effects of post-disaster life stress on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and overall functioning among WTC responders. METHOD Participants were 18,896 responders (8466 police officers and 10,430 non-traditional responders) participating in the WTC Health Program who completed an initial examination between July, 2002 and April, 2010 and were reassessed an average of two years later. RESULTS Among police responders, there was a significant interaction, such that the effect of post-disaster life stress on later PTSD symptoms and overall functioning was stronger among police responders who had greater WTC disaster exposure (β's=.029 and .054, respectively, for PTSD symptoms and overall functioning). This moderating effect was absent in non-traditional responders. Across both groups, post-disaster life stress also consistently was related to the dependent variables in a more robust manner than WTC exposure. DISCUSSION The present findings suggest that WTC exposure may compound post-disaster life stress, thereby resulting in a more chronic course of PTSD symptoms and reduced functioning among police responders.
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Zvolensky MJ, Kotov R, Schechter CB, Gonzalez A, Vujanovic A, Pietrzak RH, Crane M, Kaplan J, Moline J, Southwick SM, Feder A, Udasin I, Reissman DB, Luft BJ. Post-disaster stressful life events and WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning among responders to the World Trade Center disaster. J Psychiatr Res 2015; 61:97-105. [PMID: 25499737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current study examined contributions of post-disaster stressful life events in relation to the maintenance of WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning among rescue, recovery, and clean-up workers who responded to the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center (WTC) terrorist attacks. METHODS Participants were 18,896 WTC responders, including 8466 police officers and 10,430 non-traditional responders (85.8% male; 86.4% Caucasian; M(age) = 39.5, SD = 8.8) participating in the WTC Health Program who completed an initial examination between July, 2002 and April, 2010 and who were reassessed, on average, 2.5 years later. RESULTS Path analyses were conducted to evaluate contributions of life events to the maintenance of WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning. These analyses were stratified by police and non-traditional responder groups and adjusted for age, sex, time from 9/11 to initial visit, WTC exposures (three WTC contextual exposures: co-worker, friend, or a relative died in the disaster; co-worker, friend, or a relative injured in the disaster; and responder was exposed to the dust cloud on 9/11), and interval from initial to first follow-up visit. In both groups, WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning were stable over the follow-up period. WTC exposures were related to these three outcomes at the initial assessment. WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning, at the initial assessment each predicted the occurrence of post-disaster stressful life events, as measured by Disaster Supplement of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Post-disaster stressful life events, in turn, were associated with subsequent mental health, indicating partial mediation of the stability of observed mental health. CONCLUSIONS The present findings suggest a dynamic interplay between exposure, post-disaster stressful life events, and WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning among WTC disaster responders.
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Bromet EJ, Luft BJ. Consequences of toxic disasters for rescue, recovery, and clean-up workers require integrated mental and physical health monitoring: Editorial comment for social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2015; 50:1761-3. [PMID: 26386714 PMCID: PMC4612331 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-015-1124-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Long M, Li SX, Xiao JF, Wang J, Lozanoff S, Zhang ZG, Luft BJ, Johnson F. Kidney tubular-cell secretion of osteoblast growth factor is increased by kaempferol: a scientific basis for "the kidney controlling the bone" theory of Chinese medicine. Chin J Integr Med 2014; 20:675-81. [PMID: 25012631 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-014-1336-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study, at the cytological level, the basic concept of Chinese medicine that "the Kidney (Shen) controls the bone". METHODS Kaempferol was isolated form Rhizoma Drynariae (Gu Sui Bu, GSB) and at several concentrations was incubated with opossum kidney (OK) cells, osteoblasts (MC3T3 E1) and human fibroblasts (HF) at cell concentrations of 2×10(4)/mL. Opossum kidney cell-conditioned culture media with kaempferol at 70 nmol/L (70kaeOKM) and without kaempferol (0OKM) were used to stimulate MC3T3 E1 and HF proliferation. The bone morphological protein receptors I and II (BMPR I and II) in OK cells were identified by immune-fluorescence staining and Western blot analysis. RESULTS Kaempferol was found to increase OK cell growth (P<0.05), but alone did not promote MC3T3 E1 or HF cell proliferation. However, although OKM by itself increased MC3T3 E1 growth by 198% (P<0.01), the 70kaeOKM further increased the growth of these cells by an additional 127% (P<0.01). It indicates that the kidney cell generates a previously unknown osteoblast growth factor (OGF) and kaempferol increases kidney cell secretion of OGF. Neither of these media had any significant effect on HF growth. Kaempferol also was found to increase the level of the BMPR II in OK cells. CONCLUSIONS This lends strong support to the original idea that the Kidney has a significant influence over bone-formation, as suggested by some long-standing Chinese medical beliefs, kaempferol may also serve to stimulate kidney repair and indirectly stimulate bone formation.
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Di L, Pagan PE, Packer D, Martin CL, Akther S, Ramrattan G, Mongodin EF, Fraser CM, Schutzer SE, Luft BJ, Casjens SR, Qiu WG. BorreliaBase: a phylogeny-centered browser of Borrelia genomes. BMC Bioinformatics 2014; 15:233. [PMID: 24994456 PMCID: PMC4094996 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-15-233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The bacterial genus Borrelia (phylum Spirochaetes) consists of two groups of pathogens represented respectively by B. burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme borreliosis, and B. hermsii, the agent of tick-borne relapsing fever. The number of publicly available Borrelia genomic sequences is growing rapidly with the discovery and sequencing of Borrelia strains worldwide. There is however a lack of dedicated online databases to facilitate comparative analyses of Borrelia genomes. Description We have developed BorreliaBase, an online database for comparative browsing of Borrelia genomes. The database is currently populated with sequences from 35 genomes of eight Lyme-borreliosis (LB) group Borrelia species and 7 Relapsing-fever (RF) group Borrelia species. Distinct from genome repositories and aggregator databases, BorreliaBase serves manually curated comparative-genomic data including genome-based phylogeny, genome synteny, and sequence alignments of orthologous genes and intergenic spacers. Conclusions With a genome phylogeny at its center, BorreliaBase allows online identification of hypervariable lipoprotein genes, potential regulatory elements, and recombination footprints by providing evolution-based expectations of sequence variability at each genomic locus. The phylo-centric design of BorreliaBase (http://borreliabase.org) is a novel model for interactive browsing and comparative analysis of bacterial genomes online.
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Pietrzak RH, Feder A, Schechter CB, Singh R, Cancelmo L, Bromet EJ, Katz CL, Reissman DB, Ozbay F, Sharma V, Crane M, Harrison D, Herbert R, Levin SM, Luft BJ, Moline JM, Stellman JM, Udasin IG, El-Gabalawy R, Landrigan PJ, Southwick SM. Dimensional structure and course of post-traumatic stress symptomatology in World Trade Center responders. Psychol Med 2014; 44:2085-2098. [PMID: 24289878 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291713002924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in response to the World Trade Center (WTC) disaster of 11 September 2001 (9/11) is one of the most prevalent and persistent health conditions among both professional (e.g. police) and non-traditional (e.g. construction worker) WTC responders, even several years after 9/11. However, little is known about the dimensionality and natural course of WTC-related PTSD symptomatology in these populations. METHOD Data were analysed from 10 835 WTC responders, including 4035 police and 6800 non-traditional responders who were evaluated as part of the WTC Health Program, a clinic network in the New York area established by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were used to evaluate structural models of PTSD symptom dimensionality; and autoregressive cross-lagged (ARCL) panel regressions were used to examine the prospective interrelationships among PTSD symptom clusters at 3, 6 and 8 years after 9/11. RESULTS CFAs suggested that five stable symptom clusters best represent PTSD symptom dimensionality in both police and non-traditional WTC responders. This five-factor model was also invariant over time with respect to factor loadings and structural parameters, thereby demonstrating its longitudinal stability. ARCL panel regression analyses revealed that hyperarousal symptoms had a prominent role in predicting other symptom clusters of PTSD, with anxious arousal symptoms primarily driving re-experiencing symptoms, and dysphoric arousal symptoms primarily driving emotional numbing symptoms over time. CONCLUSIONS Results of this study suggest that disaster-related PTSD symptomatology in WTC responders is best represented by five symptom dimensions. Anxious arousal symptoms, which are characterized by hypervigilance and exaggerated startle, may primarily drive re-experiencing symptoms, while dysphoric arousal symptoms, which are characterized by sleep disturbance, irritability/anger and concentration difficulties, may primarily drive emotional numbing symptoms over time. These results underscore the importance of assessment, monitoring and early intervention of hyperarousal symptoms in WTC and other disaster responders.
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Pietrzak RH, Feder A, Singh R, Schechter CB, Bromet EJ, Katz CL, Reissman DB, Ozbay F, Sharma V, Crane M, Harrison D, Herbert R, Levin SM, Luft BJ, Moline JM, Stellman JM, Udasin IG, Landrigan PJ, Southwick SM. Trajectories of PTSD risk and resilience in World Trade Center responders: an 8-year prospective cohort study. Psychol Med 2014; 44:205-219. [PMID: 23551932 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291713000597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Longitudinal symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often characterized by heterogeneous trajectories, which may have unique pre-, peri- and post-trauma risk and protective factors. To date, however, no study has evaluated the nature and determinants of predominant trajectories of PTSD symptoms in World Trade Center (WTC) responders. METHOD A total of 10835 WTC responders, including 4035 professional police responders and 6800 non-traditional responders (e.g. construction workers) who participated in the WTC Health Program (WTC-HP), were evaluated an average of 3, 6 and 8 years after the WTC attacks. RESULTS Among police responders, longitudinal PTSD symptoms were best characterized by four classes, with the majority (77.8%) in a resistant/resilient trajectory and the remainder exhibiting chronic (5.3%), recovering (8.4%) or delayed-onset (8.5%) symptom trajectories. Among non-traditional responders, a six-class solution was optimal, with fewer responders in a resistant/resilient trajectory (58.0%) and the remainder exhibiting recovering (12.3%), severe chronic (9.5%), subsyndromal increasing (7.3%), delayed-onset (6.7%) and moderate chronic (6.2%) trajectories. Prior psychiatric history, Hispanic ethnicity, severity of WTC exposure and WTC-related medical conditions were most strongly associated with symptomatic trajectories of PTSD symptoms in both groups of responders, whereas greater education and family and work support while working at the WTC site were protective against several of these trajectories. CONCLUSIONS Trajectories of PTSD symptoms in WTC responders are heterogeneous and associated uniquely with pre-, peri- and post-trauma risk and protective factors. Police responders were more likely than non-traditional responders to exhibit a resistant/resilient trajectory. These results underscore the importance of prevention, screening and treatment efforts that target high-risk disaster responders, particularly those with prior psychiatric history, high levels of trauma exposure and work-related medical morbidities.
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Ruggero CJ, Kotov R, Callahan JL, Kilmer JN, Luft BJ, Bromet EJ. PTSD symptom dimensions and their relationship to functioning in World Trade Center responders. Psychiatry Res 2013; 210:1049-55. [PMID: 24064462 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.08.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are common among responders to the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center and can lead to impairment, yet it is unclear which symptom dimensions are responsible for poorer functioning. Moreover, how best to classify PTSD symptoms remains a topic of controversy. The present study tested competing models of PTSD dimensions and then assessed which were most strongly associated with social/occupational impairment, depression, and alcohol abuse. World Trade Center responders (n=954) enrolled in the Long Island site of the World Trade Center Health Program between 2005 and 2006 were administered standard self-report measures. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the superiority of four-factor models of PTSD over the DSM-IV three-factor model. In selecting between four-factor models, evidence was mixed, but some support emerged for a broad dysphoria dimension mapping closely onto depression and contributing strongly to functional impairment. This study confirmed in a new population the need to revise PTSD symptom classification to reflect four dimensions, but raises questions about how symptoms are categorized. Results suggest that targeted treatment of symptoms may provide the most benefit, and that treatment of dysphoria-related symptoms in disaster relief workers may have the most benefit for social and occupational functioning.
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Mongodin EF, Casjens SR, Bruno JF, Xu Y, Drabek EF, Riley DR, Cantarel BL, Pagan PE, Hernandez YA, Vargas LC, Dunn JJ, Schutzer SE, Fraser CM, Qiu WG, Luft BJ. Inter- and intra-specific pan-genomes of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: genome stability and adaptive radiation. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:693. [PMID: 24112474 PMCID: PMC3833655 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme disease is caused by spirochete bacteria from the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (B. burgdorferi s.l.) species complex. To reconstruct the evolution of B. burgdorferi s.l. and identify the genomic basis of its human virulence, we compared the genomes of 23 B. burgdorferi s.l. isolates from Europe and the United States, including B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (B. burgdorferi s.s., 14 isolates), B. afzelii (2), B. garinii (2), B. "bavariensis" (1), B. spielmanii (1), B. valaisiana (1), B. bissettii (1), and B. "finlandensis" (1). RESULTS Robust B. burgdorferi s.s. and B. burgdorferi s.l. phylogenies were obtained using genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms, despite recombination. Phylogeny-based pan-genome analysis showed that the rate of gene acquisition was higher between species than within species, suggesting adaptive speciation. Strong positive natural selection drives the sequence evolution of lipoproteins, including chromosomally-encoded genes 0102 and 0404, cp26-encoded ospC and b08, and lp54-encoded dbpA, a07, a22, a33, a53, a65. Computer simulations predicted rapid adaptive radiation of genomic groups as population size increases. CONCLUSIONS Intra- and inter-specific pan-genome sizes of B. burgdorferi s.l. expand linearly with phylogenetic diversity. Yet gene-acquisition rates in B. burgdorferi s.l. are among the lowest in bacterial pathogens, resulting in high genome stability and few lineage-specific genes. Genome adaptation of B. burgdorferi s.l. is driven predominantly by copy-number and sequence variations of lipoprotein genes. New genomic groups are likely to emerge if the current trend of B. burgdorferi s.l. population expansion continues.
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Pietrzak RH, Schechter CB, Bromet EJ, Katz CL, Reissman DB, Ozbay F, Sharma V, Crane M, Harrison D, Herbert R, Levin SM, Luft BJ, Moline JM, Stellman JM, Udasin IG, Landrigan PJ, Southwick SM. The burden of full and subsyndromal posttraumatic stress disorder among police involved in the World Trade Center rescue and recovery effort. J Psychiatr Res 2012; 46:835-42. [PMID: 22464942 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study examined the prevalence, correlates, and perceived mental healthcare needs associated with subsyndromal PTSD in police involved in the World Trade Center (WTC) rescue and recovery effort. METHODS A total of 8466 police completed an interview/survey as part of the WTC Medical monitoring and Treatment Program an average of four years after 9/11/2001. RESULTS The past month prevalence of full and subsyndromal WTC-related PTSD was 5.4% and 15.4%, respectively. Loss of someone or knowing someone injured on 9/11 (odds ratios [ORs]=1.56-1.86), pre-9/11 stressors (ORs=1.30-1.50), family support (ORs=0.83-0.94), and union membership (ORs=0.50-0.52) were associated with both full and subsyndromal PTSD. Exposure to the dust cloud (OR=1.36), performing search and rescue work (OR=1.29), and work support (OR=0.89) were additionally associated with subsyndromal PTSD. Rates of comorbid depression, panic disorder, and alcohol use problems (ORs=3.82-41.74), and somatic symptoms and functional difficulties (ORs=1.30-1.95) were highest among police with full PTSD, with intermediate rates among police with subsyndromal PTSD (ORs=2.93-7.02; and ORs=1.18-1.60, respectively). Police with full and subsyndromal PTSD were significantly more likely than controls to report needing mental healthcare (41.1% and 19.8%, respectively, versus 6.8% in trauma controls). CONCLUSIONS These results underscore the importance of a more inclusive and dimensional conceptualization of PTSD, particularly in professions such as police, as operational definitions and conventional screening cut-points may underestimate the psychological burden for this population. Accordingly, psychiatric clinicians should assess for disaster-related subsyndromal PTSD symptoms in disaster response personnel.
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Casjens SR, Mongodin EF, Qiu WG, Luft BJ, Schutzer SE, Gilcrease EB, Huang WM, Vujadinovic M, Aron JK, Vargas LC, Freeman S, Radune D, Weidman JF, Dimitrov GI, Khouri HM, Sosa JE, Halpin RA, Dunn JJ, Fraser CM. Genome stability of Lyme disease spirochetes: comparative genomics of Borrelia burgdorferi plasmids. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33280. [PMID: 22432010 PMCID: PMC3303823 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne human illness in North America. In order to understand the molecular pathogenesis, natural diversity, population structure and epizootic spread of the North American Lyme agent, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, a much better understanding of the natural diversity of its genome will be required. Towards this end we present a comparative analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the numerous plasmids of B. burgdorferi isolates B31, N40, JD1 and 297. These strains were chosen because they include the three most commonly studied laboratory strains, and because they represent different major genetic lineages and so are informative regarding the genetic diversity and evolution of this organism. A unique feature of Borrelia genomes is that they carry a large number of linear and circular plasmids, and this work shows that strains N40, JD1, 297 and B31 carry related but non-identical sets of 16, 20, 19 and 21 plasmids, respectively, that comprise 33–40% of their genomes. We deduce that there are at least 28 plasmid compatibility types among the four strains. The B. burgdorferi ∼900 Kbp linear chromosomes are evolutionarily exceptionally stable, except for a short ≤20 Kbp plasmid-like section at the right end. A few of the plasmids, including the linear lp54 and circular cp26, are also very stable. We show here that the other plasmids, especially the linear ones, are considerably more variable. Nearly all of the linear plasmids have undergone one or more substantial inter-plasmid rearrangements since their last common ancestor. In spite of these rearrangements and differences in plasmid contents, the overall gene complement of the different isolates has remained relatively constant.
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Crowley LE, Herbert R, Moline JM, Wallenstein S, Shukla G, Schechter C, Skloot GS, Udasin I, Luft BJ, Harrison D, Shapiro M, Wong K, Sacks HS, Teirstein AS, Landrigan PJ. Response to Dr. Reich's letter: "'Sarcoid-like' granulomatous pulmonary disease in world trade center disaster responders: influence of incidence computation methodology in inferring airborne dust causation": "Sarcoid-like" granulomatous pulmonary disease in World Trade Center disaster responders. Am J Ind Med 2011; 54:894-5. [PMID: 22006593 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.20995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Livey I, O'Rourke M, Traweger A, Savidis-Dacho H, Crowe BA, Barrett PN, Yang X, Dunn JJ, Luft BJ. A new approach to a Lyme disease vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 Suppl 3:s266-70. [PMID: 21217174 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciq118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A single recombinant outer surface protein A (OspA) antigen designed to contain protective elements from 2 different OspA serotypes (1 and 2) is able to induce antibody responses that protect mice against infection with either Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (OspA serotype-1) or Borrelia afzelii (OspA serotype-2). Protection against infection with B burgdorferi ss strain ZS7 was demonstrated in a needle-challenge model. Protection against B. afzelii species was shown in a tick-challenge model using feral ticks. In both models, as little as .03 μg of antigen, when administered in a 2-dose immunization schedule with aluminum hydroxide as adjuvant, was sufficient to provide complete protection against the species targeted. This proof of principle study proves that knowledge of protective epitopes can be used for the rational design of effective, genetically modified vaccines requiring fewer OspA antigens and suggests that this approach may facilitate the development of an OspA vaccine for global use.
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Crowley LE, Herbert R, Moline JM, Wallenstein S, Shukla G, Schechter C, Skloot GS, Udasin I, Luft BJ, Harrison D, Shapiro M, Wong K, Sacks HS, Landrigan PJ, Teirstein AS. "Sarcoid like" granulomatous pulmonary disease in World Trade Center disaster responders. Am J Ind Med 2011; 54:175-84. [PMID: 21298693 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.20924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND More than 20,000 responders have been examined through the World Trade Center (WTC) Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program since September 11, 2001. Studies on WTC firefighters have shown elevated rates of sarcoidosis. The main objective of this study was to report the incidence of "sarcoid like" granulomatous pulmonary disease in other WTC responders. METHODS Cases of sarcoid like granulomatous pulmonary disease were identified by: patient self-report, physician report and ICD-9 codes. Each case was evaluated by three pulmonologists using the ACCESS criteria and only "definite" cases are reported. RESULTS Thirty-eight patients were classified as "definite" cases. Six-year incidence was 192/100,000. The peak annual incidence of 54 per 100,000 person-years occurred between 9/11/2003 and 9/11/2004. Incidence in black responders was nearly double that of white responders. Low FVC was the most common spirometric abnormality. CONCLUSIONS Sarcoid like granulomatous pulmonary disease is present among the WTC responders. While the incidence is lower than that reported among firefighters, it is higher than expected.
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Angel TE, Luft BJ, Yang X, Nicora CD, Camp DG, Jacobs JM, Smith RD. Proteome analysis of Borrelia burgdorferi response to environmental change. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13800. [PMID: 21072190 PMCID: PMC2970547 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined global changes in protein expression in the B31 strain of Borrelia burgdorferi, in response to two environmental cues (pH and temperature) chosen for their reported similarity to those encountered at different stages of the organism's life cycle. Multidimensional nano-liquid chromatographic separations coupled with tandem mass spectrometry were used to examine the array of proteins (i.e., the proteome) of B. burgdorferi for different pH and temperature culture conditions. Changes in pH and temperature elicited in vitro adaptations of this spirochete known to cause Lyme disease and led to alterations in protein expression that are associated with increased microbial pathogenesis. We identified 1,031 proteins that represent 59% of the annotated genome of B. burgdorferi and elucidated a core proteome of 414 proteins that were present in all environmental conditions investigated. Observed changes in protein abundances indicated varied replicon usage, as well as proteome functional distributions between the in vitro cell culture conditions. Surprisingly, the pH and temperature conditions that mimicked B. burgdorferi residing in the gut of a fed tick showed a marked reduction in protein diversity. Additionally, the results provide us with leading candidates for exploring how B. burgdorferi adapts to and is able to survive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and lay a foundation for planned in situ studies of B. burgdorferi isolated from the tick midgut and infected animals.
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Crowder CD, Matthews HE, Schutzer S, Rounds MA, Luft BJ, Nolte O, Campbell SR, Phillipson CA, Li F, Sampath R, Ecker DJ, Eshoo MW. Genotypic variation and mixtures of Lyme Borrelia in Ixodes ticks from North America and Europe. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10650. [PMID: 20498837 PMCID: PMC2871049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme disease, caused by various species of Borrelia, is transmitted by Ixodes ticks in North America and Europe. Studies have shown the genotype of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) or the species of B. burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) affects the ability of the bacteria to cause local or disseminated infection in humans. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We used a multilocus PCR electrospray mass spectrometry assay to determine the species and genotype Borrelia from ticks collected in New York, Connecticut, Indiana, Southern Germany, and California and characterized isolates from parts of the United States and Europe. These analyses identified 53 distinct genotypes of B. burgdorferi sensu stricto with higher resolution than ospC typing. Genotypes of other members of the B. burgdorferi sensu lato complex were also identified and genotyped including B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. lusitaniae, B. spielmanii, and B. valaisiana. While each site in North America had genotypes unique to that location, we found genotypes shared between individual regions and two genotypes found across the United States. Significant B. burgdorferi s.s. genotypic diversity was observed between North America and Europe: only 6.6% of US genotypes (3 of 45) were found in Europe and 27% of the European genotypes (3 of 11) were observed in the US. Interestingly, 39% of adult Ixodes scapularis ticks from North America were infected with more than one genotype of B. burgdorferi s.s. and 22.2% of Ixodes ricinus ticks from Germany were infected with more than one genotype of B. burgdorferi s.l. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The presence of multiple Borrelia genotypes in ticks increases the probability that a person will be infected with more than one genotype of B. burgdorferi, potentially increasing the risks of disseminated Lyme disease. Our study indicates that the genotypic diversity of Borrelia in ticks in both North America and Europe is higher then previously reported and can have potential clinical consequences.
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Alangaden GJ, Aldape MJ, Allardet-Servent J, Allen UD, Ammerlaan HS, Angelakis E, Artenstein A, Asboe D, Asiedu KB, Atherton JC, Aw TC, Baid-Agrawal S, Bailey R, Bandel C, Barie PS, Barillo DJ, Bart PA, Bayston R, Beard CB, Beeching NJ, Bégué RE, Benhamou Y, Benson CA, Berbari EF, Berendt AR, Bhatta MP, Bille J, Bitnun A, Black FT, Blair I, Blanche S, Bleck TP, Bleeker-Rovers CP, Bleijenberg G, Bloch KC, Bonten MJ, Boucher CA, Bourayou R, Bouza ES, Bowie WR, Brause BD, Brisse S, Britton W, Brook I, Brown DW, Brun-Buisson C, Brust JC, Bryant AE, Bryskier A, Buller RML, Bush K, Calandra T, Cameron DW, Caraël M, Carr MJ, Casas I, Chambers ST, Chiller KG, Chiller TM, Chiodini PL, Chopra I, Chu AC, Chung KK, Clark BM, Clumeck N, Cockerell CJ, Cohen J, Collinge J, Conlon CP, Corey GR, Cross A, Cross JH, Currier J, Curtis CM, Dallabetta G, Davidson RN, Davies J, Day J, Day NP, De Gascun CF, de Wit S, Delmont J, Dennis DT, Diemert DJ, Doganay M, Doherty T, Dolecek C, Donati SY, Dondorp AM, Doudier B, Drancourt M, Drekonja DM, Drew RH, Duker JS, Dummer JS, Edwards CN, Ekkelenkamp MB, Enright MC, Epstein PR, Erard V, Eziefula AC, Feinberg MB, Fenollar F, Fenwick A, Fernandez L, Fierer J, Finch RG, Flexner CW, Fluit AC, Ford-Jones EL, Fournier PE, Fraser V, French MA, Friedland JS, Fritz JM, Furuya EY, Gage KL, Garcia LS, Gastañaduy AS, Ghanem KG, Giannella M, Glaser CA, Glesby MJ, Glover S, Glupczynski Y, Gnann JW, Goddard AF, Goldstein EJ, González IJ, Gorbach SL, Gottstein B, Gowda R, Grabenstein JD, Grange JM, Green MD, Green ST, Greenblatt DT, Greenwood B, Gregson AL, Groll AH, Gupta AK, Gwee KA, Hall W, Hammer SM, Handa S, Hanfelt-Goade D, Harari A, Harris M, Hartman BJ, Hay RJ, Henderson DK, Hensley LE, Herbert L, Hill DR, Hills TJ, Hinze JD, Hirsch HH, Hirschel B, Hoepelman AI, Holland SM, Horgan MM, Howe R, Hughes JM, Hull MW, Inderlied CB, Ison MG, Jenks PJ, Johnson JR, Jones T, Kanno M, Kauffman C, Kelly P, Kendler JS, Keynan Y, Khan AS, Kho GT, Kinghorn GR, Klapper PE, Kluytmans JAJW, Kok M, Koné-Paut I, Krieger JN, Kroes AC, Kroon FP, Kubin CJ, La Rosa AM, Lalani T, Lalloo DG, Lambert H, Landraud L, Lawn SD, Pharm PL, Leone M, Levi I, Levitt AM, Lindquist HDA, Lloyd G, Looney DJ, Lowy FD, Luft BJ, Lynn WA, Macielag MJ, Mackowiak PA, MacPherson PA, Maghraoui-Slim V, Main J, Mallet V, Mangino JE, Manuel O, Marchetti O, Marks K, Marr KA, Martin C, Martín-Rabadán P, Martinez AJ, Mascini EM, Mayer KH, McCormick JB, McGready R, McKendrick MW, Mead S, Mégraud F, Meheus AZ, Meintjes G, Michaels MG, Miles M, Miller A, Mimiaga MJ, Mingeot-Leclercq MP, Mitchell TG, Moise PA, Montaner J, Moore CB, Moreillon P, Morgan-Capner P, Montessori V, Moss P, Muñoz P, Naber KG, Nakhla S, Narain JP, Nathwani D, Newton P, Nguyen C, Nicolle LE, Niederman MS, Noel GJ, Norrby SR, Nosten F, Notarangelo LD, Nyirjesy P, O'Connell PR, Odorico JS, Ong EL, Opal SM, Ormerod LP, Osmon DR, Ottesen EA, Palacios G, Pantaleo G, Papazian L, Parola P, Pascual MA, Patrozou E, Paya C, Peacock SJ, Pechère JC, Perkins MD, Peters B, Pfyffer GE, Pham PA, Piot P, Placko-Parola G, Pol S, Posfay-Barbe KM, Powderly WG, Pozniak A, Prod'hom G, Quinn TC, Rahn DW, Rana AI, Raoult D, Raz R, Razonable R, Read RC, Reynolds SJ, Richardson MD, Robinson CC, Rooijakkers SH, Rosenbluth D, Rosenzweig SD, Rovery C, Rubin RH, Rubinovitch B, Rubins KH, Rubinstein E, Ryan G, Ryder S, Safren S, Sahasrabuddhe VV, Saikku PA, Sakoulas G, Salazar JC, Salvaggio MR, Schaffer K, Schmitz FJ, Schooley RT, Schumacher RF, Scrimgeour EM, Seddon J, Seifert H, Serjeant GR, Sha BE, Shah KV, Shapiro DS, Sheehan G, Shoham S, Simmons CP, Simonsen KA, Singh N, Slack MP, Sobel JD, Sopirala MM, Spacek LA, Sriskandan S, Stanley SL, Steckelberg JM, Stephenson I, Stevens DL, Straus WL, Sturm W, Summerbell RC, Susa JS, Tabrizi SJ, Tack MA, Taplitz R, Tebas P, Temmerman M, Thijsen SF, Thomas LD, Thomson G, Thwaites GE, Tirelli U, Tolkoff-Rubin NE, Tønjum T, Torriani FJ, Townsend GC, Masó GT, Tulkens PM, Tunkel AR, Vaccher E, Vallet-Pichard A, Van Bambeke F, van de Beek D, van der Meer JW, van Loon AM, van Putten J, Vaudaux BP, Vermund SH, Verstraelen H, Verweij P, Viscidi RP, Visvanathan K, Visvesvara GS, von Seidlein L, Wagenlehner FM, Wahl-Jensen V, Walsh TJ, Warhurst DC, Warnock DW, Warrell DA, Warrell MJ, Warris A, Weber R, Weidner W, Weston VC, Whimbey E, Whitby M, White PJ, Whitty CJ, Willems RJ, Williams E, Wilson C, Wilson ME, Winn RE, Winthrop KL, Wiselka MJ, Wisplinghoff H, Wolfe CR, Wood R, Wright N, Yankaskas JR, Zaidi NA, Zenilman JM, Zhang Y, Zuckerman AJ, Zuckerman JN, Zumla A. Contributors. Infect Dis (Lond) 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-04579-7.00347-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Marchal CM, Luft BJ, Yang X, Sibilia J, Jaulhac B, Boulanger NM. Defensin Is Suppressed by Tick Salivary Gland Extract During the In Vitro Interaction of Resident Skin Cells with Borrelia burgdorferi. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:2515-7. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Wywial E, Haven J, Casjens SR, Hernandez YA, Singh S, Mongodin EF, Fraser-Liggett CM, Luft BJ, Schutzer SE, Qiu WG. Fast, adaptive evolution at a bacterial host-resistance locus: the PFam54 gene array in Borrelia burgdorferi. Gene 2009; 445:26-37. [PMID: 19505540 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2009.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/31/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Microbial pathogens have evolved sophisticated mechanisms for evasion of host innate and adaptive immunities. PFam54 is the largest paralogous gene family in the genomes of Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease bacterium. One member of PFam54, the complement-regulator acquiring surface proteins 1 (BbCrasp-1), is able to abort the alternative pathway of complement activation via binding human complement-regulator factor H (FH). The gene coding for BbCRASP-1 exists in a tandem array of PFam54 genes in the B. burgdorferi genome, a result apparently of repeated gene duplications. To help elucidate the functions of the large number of PFam54 genes, we performed phylogenomic and structural analyses of the PFam54 gene array from ten B. burgdorferi genomes. Analyses based on gene tree, genome synteny, and structural models revealed rapid adaptive evolution of this array through gene duplication, gene loss, and functional diversification. Individual PFam54 genes, however, do not show high intra-population sequence polymorphisms as genes providing evasion from adaptive immunity generally do. PFam54 members able to bind human FH are not monophyletic, suggesting that human FH affinity, however strong, is an incidental rather than main function of these PFam54 proteins. The large number of PFam54 genes existing in any single B. burgdorferi genome may target different innate-immunity proteins of a single host species or the same immune protein of a variety of host species. Genetic variability of the PFam54 gene array suggests that universally present PFam54 lineages such as BBA64, BBA65, BBA66, and BBA73 may be better candidates for the development of broad-spectrum vaccines or drugs than strain-restricted lineages such as BbCRASP-1.
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Skloot GS, Schechter CB, Herbert R, Moline JM, Levin SM, Crowley LE, Luft BJ, Udasin IG, Enright PL. Longitudinal Assessment of Spirometry in the World Trade Center Medical Monitoring Program. Chest 2009; 135:492-498. [DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-1391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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Yang X, Nguyen A, Qiu D, Luft BJ. In vitro activity of tigecycline against multiple strains of Borrelia burgdorferi. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 63:709-12. [PMID: 19182236 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkn551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To compare the antimicrobial activity of tigecycline and doxycycline against multiple isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi. METHODS In vitro antimicrobial assays were carried out using a microdilution assay. The time needed to inhibit, immobilize and kill the B31 strain of B. burgdorferi was determined. The MIC, MBC and concentration needed to immobilize the organism were determined for each antimicrobial for various strains of B. burgdorferi. RESULTS Tigecycline inhibited the growth of and killed the organism more rapidly than doxycycline. Tigecycline was able to kill B. burgdorferi within 24 h at clinically achievable concentrations (<1 mg/L). In contrast, doxycycline was bacteriostatic and required 48-72 h to achieve its maximal inhibitory effect. The anti-Borrelia activity of the antibiotics was tested against 20 different isolates from three species. Tigecycline was 16- to 1000-fold more active than doxycycline at immobilizing Borrelia for the 20 isolates tested. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate that the in vitro activity of tigecycline against B. burgdorferi is superior to that of doxycycline. Tigecycline acted more rapidly and was bactericidal, whereas doxycycline was bacteriostatic and required a more prolonged co-incubation to achieve its maximal inhibitory effect.
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Xu Y, Bruno JF, Luft BJ. Profiling the humoral immune response to Borrelia burgdorferi infection with protein microarrays. Microb Pathog 2008; 45:403-7. [PMID: 18976702 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2008.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Revised: 08/27/2008] [Accepted: 09/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To determine the cell envelope proteins of Borrelia burgdorferi recognized by immune sera of patients with late Lyme disease, we developed a Borrelia microarray containing proteins encoded by 90 cell envelope genes and their homologs described in the annotated genomic sequence of B. burgdorferi, strain B31. The protein microarray was used to profile the humoral immune response using sera from 13 patients with late Lyme disease and four normal controls. Although there was considerable heterogeneity in the individual sera responses, 25 of the cell envelope proteins were recognized by seven or more samples. Sera from non-infected individuals lacked reactivity against any of the proteins on the array. Among the most antigenic envelope proteins, BLAST search revealed little sequence homology to known microbial proteins from other species. The proteins that were highly seropositive included several members of the Erp gene families, BBA24 (decorin binding protein A (DbpA)) and members of the Borrelia gene family Pfam113 that code for the Mlp lipoprotein gene family. Several novel, uncharacterized B. burgdorferi antigens identified in this study were BBA14, BBG23, BB0108, BB0442 and BBQ03. The accurate diagnosis of Lyme disease depends on correlating objective clinical abnormalities with serological evidence of exposure to B. burgdorferi. A protein array of the envelope proteins of Borrelia burgdorferi may be very useful in specifically identifying patients with Lyme disease. This approach could contribute to a more rapid discovery of antigens not expressed in vitro that may be useful for the development of vaccine and diagnostics.
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Stellman JM, Smith RP, Katz CL, Sharma V, Charney DS, Herbert R, Moline J, Luft BJ, Markowitz S, Udasin I, Harrison D, Baron S, Landrigan PJ, Levin SM, Southwick S. Enduring mental health morbidity and social function impairment in world trade center rescue, recovery, and cleanup workers: the psychological dimension of an environmental health disaster. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:1248-53. [PMID: 18795171 PMCID: PMC2535630 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2007] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Trade Center (WTC) attacks exposed thousands of workers to hazardous environmental conditions and psychological trauma. In 2002, to assess the health of these workers, Congress directed the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to establish the WTC Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program. This program has established a large cohort of WTC rescue, recovery, and cleanup workers. We previously documented extensive pulmonary dysfunction in this cohort related to toxic environmental exposures. OBJECTIVES Our objective in this study was to describe mental health outcomes, social function impairment, and psychiatric comorbidity in the WTC worker cohort, as well as perceived symptomatology in workers' children. METHODS Ten to 61 months after the WTC attack, 10,132 WTC workers completed a self-administered mental health questionnaire. RESULTS Of the workers who completd the questionnaire, 11.1% met criteria for probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 8.8% met criteria for probable depression, 5.0% met criteria for probable panic disorder, and 62% met criteria for substantial stress reaction. PTSD prevalence was comparable to that seen in returning Afghanistan war veterans and was much higher than in the U.S. general population. Point prevalence declined from 13.5% to 9.7% over the 5 years of observation. Comorbidity was extensive and included extremely high risks for impairment of social function. PTSD was significantly associated with loss of family members and friends, disruption of family, work, and social life, and higher rates of behavioral symptoms in children of workers. CONCLUSIONS Working in 9/11 recovery operations is associated with chronic impairment of mental health and social functioning. Psychological distress and psychopathology in WTC workers greatly exceed population norms. Surveillance and treatment programs continue to be needed.
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Xu Y, Gao S, Bruno JF, Luft BJ, Dunn JJ. Rapid detection and identification of a pathogen's DNA using Phi29 DNA polymerase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 375:522-5. [PMID: 18755142 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.08.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Zoonotic pathogens including those transmitted by insect vectors are some of the most deadly of all infectious diseases known to mankind. A number of these agents have been further weaponized and are widely recognized as being potentially significant biothreat agents. We describe a novel method based on multiply-primed rolling circle in vitro amplification for profiling genomic DNAs to permit rapid, cultivation-free differential detection and identification of circular plasmids in infectious agents. Using Phi29 DNA polymerase and a two-step priming reaction we could reproducibly detect and characterize by DNA sequencing circular DNA from Borrelia burgdorferi B31 in DNA samples containing as little as 25 pg of Borrelia DNA amongst a vast excess of human DNA. This simple technology can ultimately be adapted as a sensitive method to detect specific DNA from both known and unknown pathogens in a wide variety of complex environments.
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