Platinum Nanoparticle Decorated SiO2 Microfibers as Catalysts for Micro Unmanned Underwater Vehicle Propulsion

Micro unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) need to house propulsion mechanisms that are small in size but sufficiently powerful to deliver on-demand acceleration for tight radius turns, burst-driven docking maneuvers, and low-speed course corrections. Recently, small-scale hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) propulsion mechanisms have shown great promise in delivering pulsatile thrust for such acceleration needs. However, the need for robust, high surface area nanocatalysts that can be manufactured on a large scale for integration into micro UUV reaction chambers is still needed. In this report, a thermal/electrical insulator, silicon oxide (SiO₂) microfibers, is used as a support for platinum nanoparticle (PtNP) catalysts. The mercapto-silanization of the SiO₂ microfibers enables strong covalent attachment with PtNPs, and the resultant PtNP-SiO₂ fibers act as a robust, high surface area catalyst for H₂O₂ decomposition. The PtNP-SiO₂ catalysts are fitted inside a micro UUV reaction chamber for vehicular propulsion; the catalysts can propel a micro UUV for 5.9 m at a velocity of 1.18 m/s with 50 mL of 50% (w/w) H₂O₂. The concomitance of facile fabrication, economic and scalable processing, and high performance-including a reduction in H₂O₂ decomposition activation energy of 40-50% over conventional material catalysts-paves the way for using these nanostructured microfibers in modern, small-scale underwater vehicle propulsion systems.

Energy Transfer Sensitization of Luminescent Gold Nanoclusters: More than Just the Classical Förster Mechanism

Luminescent gold nanocrystals (AuNCs) are a recently-developed material with potential optic, electronic and biological applications. They also demonstrate energy transfer (ET) acceptor/sensitization properties which have been ascribed to Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and, to a lesser extent, nanosurface energy transfer (NSET). Here, we investigate AuNC acceptor interactions with three structurally/functionally-distinct donor classes including organic dyes, metal chelates and semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). Donor quenching was observed for every donor-acceptor pair although AuNC sensitization was only observed from metal-chelates and QDs. FRET theory dramatically underestimated the observed energy transfer while NSET-based damping models provided better fits but could not reproduce the experimental data. We consider additional factors including AuNC magnetic dipoles, density of excited-states, dephasing time, and enhanced intersystem crossing that can also influence ET. Cumulatively, data suggests that AuNC sensitization is not by classical FRET or NSET and we provide a simplified distance-independent ET model to fit such experimental data.

Quantum dot-mediated delivery of siRNA to inhibit sphingomyelinase activities in brain-derived cells

The use of RNAi to suppress protein synthesis offers a potential way of reducing the level of enzymes or the synthesis of mutant toxic proteins but there are few tools currently available for their delivery. To address this problem, bioconjugated quantum dots (QDs) containing a hydrophobic component (N-palmitate) and a sequence VKIKK designed to traverse across cell membranes and visualize drug delivery were developed and tested on cell lines of brain origin. We used the Zn outer shell of the QD to bind HIS₆ in JB577 (W•G•Dap(N-Palmitoyl)•VKIKK•P₉ •G₂ •H₆ ) and by a gel-shift assay showed that siRNAs would bind to the positively charged KIKK sequence. By comparing many peptides and QD coatings, we showed that the QD-JB577-siRNA construct was taken up by cells of nervous system origin, distributed throughout the cytosol, and inhibited protein synthesis, implying that JB577 was also promoting endosome egress. By attaching siRNA for luciferase in a cell line over-expressing luciferase, we showed 70% inhibition of mRNA after 24-48 h. To show more specific effects, we synthesized siRNA for neutral (NSMase2), acid (lysosomal ASMase) sphingomyelinase, and sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1), we demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of activity. These data suggest that QDs are a useful siRNA delivery tool and QD-siRNA could be a potential theranostic for a variety of diseases.

Nanomaterial-based sensors for the detection of biological threat agents

The danger posed by biological threat agents and the limitations of modern detection methods to rapidly identify them underpins the need for continued development of novel sensors. The application of nanomaterials to this problem in recent years has proven especially advantageous. By capitalizing on large surface/volume ratios, dispersability, beneficial physical and chemical properties, and unique nanoscale interactions, nanomaterial-based biosensors are being developed with sensitivity and accuracy that are starting to surpass traditional biothreat detection methods, yet do so with reduced sample volume, preparation time, and assay cost. In this review, we start with an overview of bioagents and then highlight the breadth of nanoscale sensors that have recently emerged for their detection.

Luminescent Quantum Dot-Bioconjugates in Immunoassays, FRET, Biosensing, and Imaging Applications

Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots, QDs), such as CdSe-ZnS core-shell, are highly luminescent and stable inorganic fluorophores that represent a promising alternative to organic dyes for a variety of biotechnological applications. They show size-tunable narrow photoluminescence spectra spanning nearly the full visible region of the optical spectrum for QDs with CdSe cores. We have developed several approaches to conjugate either one type or a combination of biologically distinct proteins to CdSe-ZnS core-shell QDs rendered water-soluble by surface ligation with dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) groups. QD-protein conjugates prepared using these approaches were found to exhibit high specificity and stability in immunoassays and in Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays as well as in prototype QD bioconjugate sensors. Tunable QD emission over a wide range of wavelengths permitted effective tuning of the degree of energy overlap between the QD donor and an acceptor dye, allowing control over the rate of FRET. Additionally, we have used these QD-bioconjugates in live cell labeling. These hybrid bioinorganic conjugates represent a promising tool for use in many biotechnological applications.

3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine Peptides as Nonperturbative Quantum Dot Sensors of Aminopeptidase

Fluorescence-based assays for hydrolases that cleave within the substrate (endopeptidases) are common, while developing substrates for proteases that selectively cleave from peptide termini (exopeptidases) is more challenging, since the termini are specifically recognized by the enzyme and cannot be modified to facilitate a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based approach. The development of a robust system that enables the quenching of fluorescent particles by simple amino acid side chains would find broad utility for peptide sensors and would be advantageous for exopeptidases. Here we describe a quantum dot (QD)-based electron transfer (ET) sensor that is able to allow direct, quantitative monitoring of both exopeptidase and endopeptidase activity. The incorporation of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) into the sequence of a peptide allows for the quenching of QD photoluminescence through an ET mechanism. DOPA is a nonproteinogenic amino acid that can replace a phenylalanine or tyrosine residue in a peptide sequence without severely altering structural properties, allowing for its introduction at multiple positions within a biologically active peptide substrate. Consequently, the quenching system presented here is ideally suited for incorporation into diverse peptide substrates for enzyme recognition, digestion, and activity sensing. Our findings suggest a broad utility of a small ET-capable amino acid side chain in detecting enzyme activity through ET-mediated QD luminescence quenching.

Emerging Physicochemical Phenomena along with New Opportunities at the Biomolecular-Nanoparticle Interface

Efforts to create new nanoparticle-biomolecule hybrids for diverse applications including biosensing, theranostics, drug delivery, and even biocomputation continue to grow at an unprecedented rate. As the composite designs become more sophisticated, new and unanticipated physicochemical phenomena are emerging at the nanomaterial-biological interface. These phenomena arise from two interrelated factors, namely, the novel architecture of nanoparticle bioconjugates and the unique physicochemical properties of their interfacial environment. Here we examine how the augmented functionality imparted by such hybrid structures, including accessing concentric energy transfer, enhanced enzymatic activity, and sensitivity to electric fields, is leading to new applications. We discuss some lesser-understood phenomena that arise at the nanoparticle interface, such as the complex and confounding issue of protein corona formation, along with their unexpected benefits. Overall, understanding these complex phenomena will improve the design of composite materials while uncovering new opportunities for their application.

Time-gated FRET nanoassemblies for rapid and sensitive intra- and extracellular fluorescence imaging

Time-gated Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) using the unique material combination of long-lifetime terbium complexes (Tb) and semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) provides many advantages for highly sensitive and multiplexed biosensing. Although time-gated detection can efficiently suppress sample autofluorescence and background fluorescence from directly excited FRET acceptors, Tb-to-QD FRET has rarely been exploited for biomolecular imaging. We demonstrate Tb-to-QD time-gated FRET nanoassemblies that can be applied for intra- and extracellular imaging. Immunostaining of different epitopes of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) with Tb- and QD-conjugated antibodies and nanobodies allowed for efficient Tb-to-QD FRET on A431 cell membranes. The broad usability of Tb-to-QD FRET was further demonstrated by intracellular Tb-to-QD FRET and Tb-to-QD-to-dye FRET using microinjection as well as cell-penetrating peptide-mediated endocytosis with HeLa cells. Effective brightness enhancement by FRET from several Tb to the same QD, the use of low nanomolar concentrations, and the quick and sensitive detection void of FRET acceptor background fluorescence are important advantages for advanced intra- and extracellular imaging of biomolecular interactions.

Meta-analysis of cellular toxicity for cadmium-containing quantum dots

Understanding the relationships between the physicochemical properties of engineered nanomaterials and their toxicity is critical for environmental and health risk analysis. However, this task is confounded by material diversity, heterogeneity of published data and limited sampling within individual studies. Here, we present an approach for analysing and extracting pertinent knowledge from published studies focusing on the cellular toxicity of cadmium-containing semiconductor quantum dots. From 307 publications, we obtain 1,741 cell viability-related data samples, each with 24 qualitative and quantitative attributes describing the material properties and experimental conditions. Using random forest regression models to analyse the data, we show that toxicity is closely correlated with quantum dot surface properties (including shell, ligand and surface modifications), diameter, assay type and exposure time. Our approach of integrating quantitative and categorical data provides a roadmap for interrogating the wide-ranging toxicity data in the literature and suggests that meta-analysis can help develop methods for predicting the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials.

Nanoparticles and DNA - a powerful and growing functional combination in bionanotechnology

Functionally integrating DNA and other nucleic acids with nanoparticles in all their different physicochemical forms has produced a rich variety of composite nanomaterials which, in many cases, display unique or augmented properties due to the synergistic activity of both components. These capabilities, in turn, are attracting greater attention from various research communities in search of new nanoscale tools for diverse applications that include (bio)sensing, labeling, targeted imaging, cellular delivery, diagnostics, therapeutics, theranostics, bioelectronics, and biocomputing to name just a few amongst many others. Here, we review this vibrant and growing research area from the perspective of the materials themselves and their unique capabilities. Inorganic nanocrystals such as quantum dots or those made from gold or other (noble) metals along with metal oxides and carbon allotropes are desired as participants in these hybrid materials since they can provide distinctive optical, physical, magnetic, and electrochemical properties. Beyond this, synthetic polymer-based and proteinaceous or viral nanoparticulate materials are also useful in the same role since they can provide a predefined and biocompatible cargo-carrying and targeting capability. The DNA component typically provides sequence-based addressability for probes along with, more recently, unique architectural properties that directly originate from the burgeoning structural DNA field. Additionally, DNA aptamers can also provide specific recognition capabilities against many diverse non-nucleic acid targets across a range of size scales from ions to full protein and cells. In addition to appending DNA to inorganic or polymeric nanoparticles, purely DNA-based nanoparticles have recently surfaced as an excellent assembly platform and have started finding application in areas like sensing, imaging and immunotherapy. We focus on selected and representative nanoparticle-DNA materials and highlight their myriad applications using examples from the literature. Overall, it is clear that this unique functional combination of nanomaterials has far more to offer than what we have seen to date and as new capabilities for each of these materials are developed, so, too, will new applications emerge.

Conjugation of biotin-coated luminescent quantum dots with single domain antibody-rhizavidin fusions

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Single domain antibody—rhizavidin fusion bioconjugated biotin coated quantum dots.

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Provided facile and effective method to orient antibodies on QD surface.

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Accomplished improved production of His-tagged rhizavidin (RZh) in E. coli.

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Demonstrated utility of RZh as a replacement for tetrameric biotin binders.

Straightforward and effective methods are required for the bioconjugation of proteins to surfaces and particles. Previously we demonstrated that the fusion of a single domain antibody with the biotin binding molecule rhizavidin provided a facile method to coat biotin-modified surfaces with a highly active and oriented antibody. Here, we constructed similar single domain antibody—rhizavidin fusions as well as unfused rhizavidin with a His-tag. The unfused rhizavidin produced efficiently and its utility for assay development was demonstrated in surface plasmon resonance experiments. The single domain antibody-rhizavidin fusions were utilized to coat quantum dots that had been prepared with surface biotins. Preparation of antibody coated quantum dots by this means was found to be both easy and effective. The prepared single domain antibody-quantum dot reagent was characterized by surface plasmon resonance and applied to toxin detection in a fluoroimmunoassay sensing format.

A DNAzyme-mediated logic gate for programming molecular capture and release on DNA origami

Here we design a DNA origami-based site-specific molecular capture and release platform operated by a DNAzyme-mediated logic gate process.

Expanding molecular logic capabilities in DNA-scaffolded multiFRET triads

Dynamic rearrangement of DNA nanostructures provides a straightforward yet powerful mechanism for sequence-specific sensing and potential signaling of such interactions.

Modulation of Intracellular Quantum Dot to Fluorescent Protein Förster Resonance Energy Transfer via Customized Ligands and Spatial Control of Donor-Acceptor Assembly

Understanding how to controllably modulate the efficiency of energy transfer in Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based assemblies is critical to their implementation as sensing modalities. This is particularly true for sensing assemblies that are to be used as the basis for real time intracellular sensing of intracellular processes and events. We use a quantum dot (QD) donor -mCherry acceptor platform that is engineered to self-assemble in situ wherein the protein acceptor is expressed via transient transfection and the QD donor is microinjected into the cell. QD-protein assembly is driven by metal-affinity interactions where a terminal polyhistidine tag on the protein binds to the QD surface. Using this system, we show the ability to modulate the efficiency of the donor-acceptor energy transfer process by controllably altering either the ligand coating on the QD surface or the precise location where the QD-protein assembly process occurs. Intracellularly, a short, zwitterionic ligand mediates more efficient FRET relative to longer ligand species that are based on the solubilizing polymer, poly(ethylene glycol). We further show that a greater FRET efficiency is achieved when the QD-protein assembly occurs free in the cytosol compared to when the mCherry acceptor is expressed tethered to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. In the latter case, the lower FRET efficiency is likely attributable to a lower expression level of the mCherry acceptor at the membrane combined with steric hindrance. Our work points to some of the design considerations that one must be mindful of when developing FRET-based sensing schemes for use in intracellular sensing.

Bacterial Nanobioreactors--Directing Enzyme Packaging into Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles

All bacteria shed outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) loaded with a diverse array of small molecules, proteins, and genetic cargo. In this study we sought to hijack the bacterial cell export pathway to simultaneously produce, package, and release an active enzyme, phosphotriesterase (PTE). To accomplish this goal the SpyCatcher/SpyTag (SC/ST) bioconjugation system was utilized to produce a PTE-SpyCatcher (PTE-SC) fusion protein and a SpyTagged transmembrane porin protein (OmpA-ST), known to be abundant in OMVs. Under a range of physiological conditions the SpyTag and SpyCatcher domains interact with one another and form a covalent isopeptide bond driving packaging of PTE into forming OMVs. The PTE-SC loaded OMVs are characterized for size distribution, number of vesicles produced, cell viability, packaged PTE enzyme kinetics, OMV loading efficiency, and enzyme stability following iterative cycles of freezing and thawing. The PTE-loaded OMVs exhibit native-like enzyme kinetics when assayed with paraoxon as a substrate. PTE is often toxic to expression cultures and has a tendency to lose activity with improper handling. The coexpression of OmpA-ST with PTE-SC, however, greatly improved the overall PTE production levels by mitigating toxicity through exporting of the PTE-SC and greatly enhanced packaged enzyme stability against iterative cycles of freezing and thawing.

Combining semiconductor quantum dots and bioscaffolds into nanoscale energy transfer devices

Significant advances have been made in the development of nanoscale devices capable of exciton transport via Förster resonance energy transfer. Several requirements must be met for effective operation, including a reliable energy-harvesting source along with highly organized, precisely placed energy relay elements. For the latter, biological scaffolds such as DNA provide a customizable, symmetric, and stable structure that can be site-specifically modified with organic fluorophores. Here, advancements in nanoscale energy transfer devices incorporating semiconductor nanocrystals and bioscaffolds are reviewed with discussion of biofunctionalization, linker chemistries, design considerations, and concluding with applications in light harvesting, multiplexed biosensing, and optical logic.

Intracellular FRET-based probes: a review

Probes that exploit Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) in their feedback mechanism are touted for their sensitivity, robustness, and low background, and thanks to the exceptional distance dependence of the energy transfer process, they provide a means of probing lengthscales well below the resolution of light. These attributes make FRET-based probes superbly suited to an intracellular environment, and recent developments in biofunctionalization and expansion of imaging capabilities have put them at the forefront of intracellular studies. Here, we present an overview of the engineering and execution of a variety of recent intracellular FRET probes, highlighting the diversity of this class of materials and the breadth of application they have found in the intracellular environment.

High Aspect Ratio Carbon Nanotube Membranes Decorated with Pt Nanoparticle Urchins for Micro Underwater Vehicle Propulsion via H2O2 Decomposition

The utility of unmanned micro underwater vehicles (MUVs) is paramount for exploring confined spaces, but their spatial agility is often impaired when maneuvers require burst-propulsion. Herein we develop high-aspect ratio (150:1), multiwalled carbon nanotube microarray membranes (CNT-MMs) for propulsive, MUV thrust generation by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The CNT-MMs are grown via chemical vapor deposition with diamond shaped pores (nominal diagonal dimensions of 4.5 × 9.0 μm) and subsequently decorated with urchin-like, platinum (Pt) nanoparticles via a facile, electroless, chemical deposition process. The Pt-CNT-MMs display robust, high catalytic ability with an effective activation energy of 26.96 kJ mol(-1) capable of producing a thrust of 0.209 ± 0.049 N from 50% [w/w] H2O2 decomposition within a compact reaction chamber of eight Pt-CNT-MMs in series.

Understanding How Nanoparticle Attachment Enhances Phosphotriesterase Kinetic Efficiency

As a specific example of the enhancement of enzymatic activity that can be induced by nanoparticles, we investigate the hydrolysis of the organophosphate paraoxon by phosphotriesterase (PTE) when the latter is displayed on semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). PTE conjugation to QDs underwent extensive characterization including structural simulations, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, and dynamic light scattering to confirm orientational and ratiometric control over enzyme display which appears to be necessary for enhancement. PTE hydrolytic activity was then examined when attached to ca. 4 and 9 nm diameter QDs in comparison to controls of freely diffusing enzyme alone. The results confirm that the activity of the QD conjugates significantly exceeded that of freely diffusing PTE in both initial rate (∼4-fold) and enzymatic efficiency (∼2-fold). To probe kinetic acceleration, various modified assays including those with increased temperature, presence of a competitive inhibitor, and increased viscosity were undertaken to measure the activation energy and dissociation rates. Cumulatively, the data indicate that the higher activity is due to an acceleration in enzyme-product dissociation that is presumably driven by the markedly different microenvironment of the PTE-QD bioconjugate's hydration layer. This report highlights how a specific change in an enzymatic mechanism can be both identified and directly linked to its enhanced activity when displayed on a nanoparticle. Moreover, the generality of the mechanism suggests that it could well be responsible for other examples of nanoparticle-enhanced catalysis.

The Role of Negative Charge in the Delivery of Quantum Dots to Neurons

Despite our extensive knowledge of the structure of negatively charged cell surface proteoglycans and sialoglycoconjugates in the brain, we have little understanding of how their negative charge contributes to brain function. We have previously shown that intensely photoluminescent 9-nm diameter quantum dots (QDs) with a CdSe core, a ZnS shell, and a negatively charged compact molecular ligand coating (CL4) selectively target neurons rather than glia. We now provide an explanation for this selective neuronal delivery. In this study, we compared three zwitterionic QD coatings differing only in their regions of positive or negative charge, as well as a positively charged (NH₂) polyethylene glycol (PEG) coat, for their ability to deliver the cell-membrane-penetrating chaperone lipopeptide JB577 (WG(Palmitoyl)VKIKKP₉G₂H₆) to individual cells in neonatal rat hippocampal slices. We confirm both that preferential uptake in neurons, and the lack of uptake in glia, is strongly associated with having a region of greater negative charge on the QD coating. In addition, the role of negatively charged chondroitin sulfate of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in restricting uptake was further suggested by digesting neonatal rat hippocampal slices with chondroitinase ABC and showing increased uptake of QDs by oligodendrocytes. Treatment still did not affect uptake in astrocytes or microglia. Finally, the future potential of using QDs as vehicles for trafficking proteins into cells continues to show promise, as we show that by administering a histidine-tagged green fluorescent protein (eGFP-His₆) to hippocampal slices, we can observe neuronal uptake of GFP.